Brain and Behavior Study Guide Final TestStress and HealthWhat is a stressor?Anything that throws body out of allostatic balanceWhat is allostasis?Range of measures appropriate for situation (sleep vs. bungee-jumping)What are the 3 stages of a stress response?1. Alarm: SNS activation2. Resistance: decreased SNS activity; increased HPA activity cortisol & other hormones for maintaining prolonged alertness & increased immune function (to fight infections & to heal wounds)3. Exhaustion: NS and Immune system are spent…person is tired, inactive, and vulnerable to illnessWhat is the role of the sympathetic NS in the stress response?It creates the alarm in the body and helps with the resistance of the stress hormones.What is the HPA and what is it’s role in the stress response?• H ypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Adrenal cortex. Creates cortisol & other hormones for maintaining prolonged alertness & increased immune function (to fight infections & to heal wounds). Hypothalamus makes CRH (corticotropic releasing hormone) Pituitary makes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) adrenal secretes cortisol increase in blood sugar & metabolismWhy do you feel terrible during finals week?NS and Immune system are spent…person is tired, inactive, and vulnerable to illnessWhat are some effects of long-term stress?Hippocampal damage (b/c increased cortisol makes hippo. neurons more vulnerable); Reproductive effects; Decreased immune function, Prolonged sickness; Increased blood sugar (b/c stress (cortisol?) causes pancreas to release glucagon).Learning and MemoryWhat is an engram, and what were Lashley’s critical mistakes in looking for the engram?A physical representation of a memory. He thought they were in cortex and all physiologically the same.What are implicit memory and explicit memory? What brain regions are important for each?Explicit: deliberate recall of info that one remembers as a memory (ie, who was the main character in the last novel you read?)Implicit: the influences of recent experiences on behavior, w/o necessarily realizing that one is using memoryWhat are some differences b/t short-term memory (working memory) and long-term memory? What brain region is important for working memory?STM: small capacity; fades quickly unless rehearsed; once forgotten, it is gone; Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is important brain region.LTM: Infinite capacity; lasts indefinitely; could be forgotten then later remembered with cues.What were some of HM’s impairments; what could he still do?Had anterograde amnesia. Lost declarative (explicit) memory; Intact procedural memory (a type of implicit); Intact working memory.With regard to memory, what are some functions of the hippocampus?• Active during formation of memories & during recall: Declarative/explicit memory; Spatial memory; Consolidation (STM LTM)What other brain regions are important in learning and memory, and what type of learning do they subserve?Cerebellum: for learning a conditioned response Also for motor learning (skills) & cognitive stuff too; Parietal lobe: if damage, don’t spontaneously elaborate on memories; Temporal lobe (ant./inf.): damage causes semantic dementia(loss of factual knowledge) this region is a hub for retrieving info; Prefrontal cortex: learning reward and punishment (& working memory)What is a Hebbian synapse?a synapse that increases in effectiveness b/c of simulataneous activity in pre- and postsynaptic neurons.What is LTP? What receptors are necessary? Long-term Potentiation: a burst of stimulation from axons, e.g., 100 excitations per second for 1-4 seconds onto dendrites, results in potentiated (strengthened) synapses for minutes, days or weeks. Necessitates glutamate receptors: AMPA and NMDA receptors.What are some presynaptic changes that occur in LTP? What are some postsynaptic changes that happen in LTP?Retrograde transmitter from dendrite to axon terminal, usually nitric oxide (NO); Decreased threshold for producing Aps; Increased release of neurotransmitter; Expansion of axon; Release of NT from more sites along axon.What is evidence that there is a functional connection between LTP and actual learning?Research with mice: abnormal NMDA receptors impair learning; drugs that block LTP block retention of learned material; drugs that facilitate LTP facilitate learning; LTP increases certain proteins, & blocking those proteins weakens memoriesAlzheimer’s disease and other DementiasWhat are some cognitive and non-cognitive symptoms of dementia? What are the 4 A’s of dementia?Cognitive: Impairment in memory & cognition, accompanied by decreased ability to relate/function at home/work/social settingsNon-Cognitive: delusions, suspicions, hallucinations, agitation, depression4 A’s: Amnesia - Loss of memory (working memory goes first); Agnosia - Loss of ability to recognize objects; Apraxia - Loss of knowledge about how to do things; Aphasia - Loss of speechWhat are some symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)?Deficits in explicit and implicit memory; Gradual progression to more serious memory loss and Language problems (loss of vocabulary), Confusion, Depression, Restlessness ,Hallucinations, Delusions, Sleeplessness, Loss of appetite. End stage is usually coma; death usually caused by an infectionWhat is the difference b/t early-onset and late-onset AD? Which one has a stronger genetic contribution?Early onset: People <40 yr old, Only about 1% (or up to 10%) of people w/ AD, Gene on chromosome 21 (for APP…don’t want 3 copies of this), Gene for ApoE4 which breaks down beta-amyloid (this version isn’t very good at it), Other genes on other chromosomes linked to more ofthese cases.Late onset: Over 60 yr old, 5% of people b/t 65-74 yr old, 50% of people over 85 yr old, Some genes that increase risk, but only account for small percentage of cases, Half of patients have noknown relative with A.D., Diet may be protective (low-calorie, low-fat, low-sodium).What do the neurons and the brain of an AD patient look like? Brain atrophy: Loss of neurons; Loss of spines & synapses; Loss of connections between neurons. Proteins fold abnormally, clump, and interfere w/ neuronal activity.Plaques and tangles: Where are they (inside or outside of cells) and what forms them?Plaques are in-between cells while tangles are inside them. Formed by Amyloid Precursor Protein and Tau respectively. What are some treatment options for Alzheimer’s Disease?Drugs to stimulate Acetylcholine
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