1. Industry vs. inferiority 1. in first grade, we are asked to produce work that is evaluated 2. if we perform as well as our peers, we feel competent 1. if not, inferiority complex! 2. → anxiety about our performance in that area 2. Identity vs. role confusion 1. in adolescence, our main social task is to discover what social identity we are most comfortable with 1. maybe try out different roles 2. identity crisis 1. if an adolescent doesn’t figure out a sense of self, they might have one later in life 3. Intimacy vs. isolation 1. a. young adults figure out how to balance time and effort between work, relationships, and self 1. the patterns we choose become relatively permanent 4. Generativity vs stagnation 1. we look critically at our life path 2. we try to ensure that our lives are going the way we want 1. if not, we try to change it by controlling others or changing our identity 5. Integrity vs. despair 1. toward the end of life 2. we look back at our accomplishments and decide if we’re satisfied 1. if so, we can step outside society and offer wisdom 2. if not, we may fall into despair over lost opportunities 2. Cognitive Development 1. Jean Piaget 1. Worked for Albert Binet, creator of the first intelligence test 1. noticed that children of the same age gave similar answers 1. hypothesis: they think in similar ways which differ from the ways of adults 2. led to theory of cognitive development 2. Theory of cognitive development 1. children view the world through schemata 1. cognitive rules we use to interpret the world 2. assimilation 1. we incorporate our experiences into this existing schemata 3. when info violates our schemata, we accommodate and change our schemata 3. Four stages of thinking 1. sensorimotor stage 1. birth 2 years 2. we explore the world through our senses 3. behavior is governed by reflexes until we develop our first cognitive schemata 4. major challenge develop object permanence (objects continue to exist even when out of our sensory range) 2. preoperational stage 1. 2 years 7 years 2. object permanence prepares us to use symbols to represent real world objects 3. → the beginning of language 4. we speak our first words 5. we are limited in the ways we can think about the relationships between and characteristics of objects 6. egocentric in thinking can only see world from their perspective 3. concrete operations 1. 8 years 12 years 2. we learn to think more logically about complex relationships between different characteristics of objects 3. concepts of conservation 4. → the realization that properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes change 5. → ex. volume, area, number 4. formal operations 1. 12 years adulthood 2. we gain metacognition (the ability to think about the way we think) 3. abstract reasoning 4. → hypothesis testing. someone in this stage can reason from a hypothesis 5. we can manipulate objects in our minds without physically seeing them 6. we can contrast ideas in our minds without real world correlates 2. Criticisms of Piaget: Information Processing Model 1. He underestimated children 1. many go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than he thought 2. his tests relied too heavily on language use 1. results biased in favor of older kids 2. Information processing model 1. a more continuous alternative to Piaget’s stage theory 2. our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we age, not in stages 1. ex: attention span 2. → could explain some apparent cognitive differences Piaget attributed to different cognitive stages 3. Moral Development 1. Lawrence Kohlberg 1. Described how our ability to reason about ethical situations changes over our lives 2. Asked children to think about specific moral situations 3. Heinz dilemma 1. Heinz must make a moral choice about whether to steal a drug he can’t afford to save his wife’s life 4. Responses to Heinz dilemma 1. preconventional 1. youngest children 2. focus on making the decision most likely to avoid punishment 3. moral reasoning limited to how the choice affects themselves 2. conventional 1. look at the moral choice through the eyes of others 2. make the choice based on how others will view them 3. try to follow conventional standards of right and wrong 3. postconventional 1. moral reasoning 2. examines the rights and values involved in the choice 3. selfdefined ethical principles involved 4. the morality of societal rules are examined, not blindly accepted 2. Criticisms of Kohlberg 1. Carol Gilligan 1. Kohlberg developed the model based on responses of boys 1. gender differences in development of morals and ethics? 2. according to her research: 1. boys have a more absolute view of what is moral 2. girls pay more attention to the situational factors 3. recent research doesn’t support her theory of gender differences in moral development 4. Gender and Development 1. Biopsychological (Neuropsychological) Theory 1. Concentrates on the nature element in the nature/nurture combo that produces our gender role 1. behaviors that a culture associates with a gender 2. Look for more subtle gender differences 3. Women have larger corpus callosums 1. may affect how the brain hemispheres communicate 2.