Concerns about Drug Use by AthletesHistory: Ancient TimesEarly Use of StimulantsHistory: AmphetaminesInternational Drug TestingAmerican FootballHistory: SteroidsThe BALCO ScandalThe Battle Over TestingPerformance EnhancersStimulantsSteroidsResearch IssuesPsychological EffectsAdverse EffectsRegulationsHuman Growth HormoneBeta-2 AgonistsCreatineGetting “Cut”Performance-Enhancing Drugs Concerns about Drug Use by Athletes- Reasons for concern include: Athletes are role models for young people Drugs may provide an unfair advantage during competition Athletes at all levels of ability may risk their health or lives by taking drugsHistory: Ancient Times- Early products May not have provided any true physical performance enhancement Probably had only a placebo value- Ancient Greek Olympians and Aztec athletes used plant-based stimulants - Athletic competitions probably developed in tribal societies as a means of training for war or hunting Drugs were also often used for these activitiesEarly Use of Stimulants- Strychnine At low doses = a CNS stimulant Higher doses may lead to convulsions and death 1904 Olympic marathon winner used brandy and strychnine Despite associated dangers, some use of strychnine may have continued into the 1960s - Cocaine Available beginning in the 1800s Mariani’s coca wine was used by the French cycling team  Athletes later used pure cocaine- Caffeine Many athletes used coffee and/or pure caffeineHistory: Amphetamines- Potential benefits over other stimulants: More potent than caffeine Safer than strychnine  Seemed to be the ideal ergogenic drug- Probably in use by athletes soon after they were introduced in the 1930s Many early reports of the use by boxers, cyclists, and soccer players- Examples of adverse events: 1950s Olympics: Many reports of amphetamine use, a few deaths 1960 Olympics: One cyclist died, several others hospitalized due to amphetamine useInternational Drug Testing- 1960s:  Some sports began testing athletes, but problems continued Example: cyclist died during 1967 Tour de Franceo Amphetamines found in his system- 1968: International Olympic Committee established rules to disqualify any athlete who used banned drugs or refused to be tested- Scope of testing at the Olympics has continued to expand over timeAmerican Football- 1960s: Many football players used amphetamines during games- Attitudes toward amphetamines changed 1971: NFL banned the distribution of amphetamines by team officials Initially no testing of players, who could still obtain the drug on their own- Current NFL policy restricts all use of amphetamines and many other drugsHistory: Steroids- Testosterone was used for weight gain in malnourished people- Soviets began to use testosterone to build up athletes in the 1950s- 1960s: Many U.S. athletes used steroids Weight lifters and bodybuilders Track and field athletes - 1970s: Testing in athletic events beganThe BALCO Scandal- Rumors of steroid use by certain professional baseball players- June 2003: Evidence surfaced that athletes were using tetrahydrogestrinone Previously unknown steroid that did not show up in tests developed by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency- BALCO Laboratories founder Victor Conte was implicated Along with a number of professional athletes from several different sportsThe Battle Over Testing- 1980s: Reports of drug use among athletes grew  Most sports organizations adopted stricter testing guidelines Longer lists of banned substances- Despite extensive and expensive tests, use of performance-enhancing substances continues- There is ongoing development of new drugs and strategies to help athletes avoid detectionPerformance Enhancers- Types of drugs used as performance enhancers include: Stimulants Steroids Human growth hormone Beta-2 agonists CreatineStimulants- Are stimulants effective?- Amphetamines: Studies indicate that most athletes perform better But the improvement is small At high levels of competition, small improvements can make a big difference - Underlying mechanism of improvement is unclear  Increased physical ability (increased strength, masking of fatigue) Effects on the brain (increased confidence, winning attitude) - Caffeine: Improves endurance under laboratory conditions May not be effective under certain conditions May need large amounts of caffeine- Ephedrine: On Olympic and NCAA lists of banned substances Professional sports organizations were slower to ban ito Example: Major League Baseballo 2003: Death of pitcher Steve Bechler in 2003 was attributed to ephedrine-related heat strokeSteroids- The male sex hormone testosterone has two type of effects Androgenic effects (masculinizing)o Growth of the penis and other male sex glandso Deepening of the voiceo Increased facial hair Anabolic effects (tissue building)o Increased muscle masso Control of the distribution of body fato Increased protein synthesiso Increased calcium in the bones- Synthetic anabolic steroids have fewer androgenic effects- Are steroids effective?- Research findings Animal studies: Synthetic anabolic steroids build muscle in castrated animals Laboratory research on healthy men o Steroids can produce small increases in lean muscle mass and muscular strengtho No evidence for increase in aerobic capacity or endurance- Unclear if giving anabolic steroids to males who have normal testosterone levels will have a significant effectResearch Issues- Difficult to extrapolate laboratory findings to athletes Athletes may use much higher doses  Athletes may use combinations of steroids (“stacking”)- Psychological effects of steroids may affect results Users report that they feel stronger and can thus work harder Possible active placebo effectPsychological Effects- Anecdotally, steroids produce a stimulant-like high and increased aggressiveness May allow for more work done during training and increased intensity of effort during competition- Concerns about high dose use Psychological dependence, resulting in mood swings and depression when users don’t take the drugs Interference with social relationships and other areas of life “Roid rage”:o Stories may be exaggeratedo But there are many reports of violent feelings and actions among steroid users that raise concernAdverse Effects- Risks for young users Premature closure of the growth plates of