Animism and ReligionTerminologyClassificationTwo Groups of PhantasticaIndole Hallucinogens (Phantastica)LSDDiscoveryEarly ResearchRecreational UsePharmacologyPsychological and Behavioral EffectsTime CourseAdverse ReactionsPsilocybinAcute and Long-Term EffectsOther Indole HallucinogensCatechol Hallucinogens (Phantastica)MescalineCultural UsePharmacologyAmphetamine DerivativesHistoryDeliriantsPCPRecreational UseOther PCP-Like DrugsAnticholinergic HallucinogensPhysiological effectsBehavioral effectsNaturally occuring anticholinergicsOther DeliriantsChapter 14: Hallucinogens Animism and Religion- Animism Objects attain certain characteristics because of spirits If a plant contains a spirit, then eating the plant transfers this spirit to the person who consumes it- Psychoactive plants that alter perceptions May have been important in the development of spiritual and religious traditions and folklore in many societiesTerminology- Phantastica Drugs that create a world of fantasy Psychedelic “Mind-viewing” Implies a beneficial, visionary type of effect Psychotomimetic “Mimicking psychosis” Produces hallucinations and altered reality, a state similar to psychosis- Entheogen Substances that create spiritual or religious experiences Entactogen Substances that enhance feelings of empathy Hallucinogens A drug that produces profound alterations in perception, including unusual visual sensations and often changes in the perception of one’s own bodyClassificationHallucinogens can be classified by:- Chemical structure- Known pharmacological properties- How much loss of awareness they cause- How dangerous they are- Two major groups Phantastica o Alter perceptions while allowing the user to remain in communication with the present world Deliriants o Produce more mental confusion, greater clouding of consciousness, and a loss of touch with realityTwo Groups of Phantastica- Indole hallucinogens Drugs that have the same basic indole structure of the neurotransmitter serotonin Examples: LSD, psilocybin- Catechol hallucinogens Drugs that have the same basic catechol structure of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine Examples: mescaline, MDMA (Ecstasy)Indole Hallucinogens (Phantastica)LSDDiscovery- 1938: Synthesized by Dr. Albert Hofmann of Sandoz Laboratories in Switzerland - 1943: Dr. Hofmann took a large dose and described its hallucinogenic effects Dose was 5–8 times the normal effective dose- Potency of the drug attracted attention Comparable effects from mescaline would require 4,000 times the doseEarly Research- 1950s–1970s: a tremendous amount of LSD research Attempting to develop a model of psychosis Widely used as an adjunct to psychotherapy- 1970s: Funding institutes stopped supporting human research Most research since 1975 has been conducted with animals in an effort to understand the mechanism at the neural level- Secret Army/CIA Research Poorly done and violated many ethical codes U.S. required to pay reparations to research subjectsRecreational Use- Timothy Leary Conducted research on LSD and psilocybin at Harvard Research was scientifically unsound and unethical Started a religion (League of Spiritual Discovery) with LSD as a sacrament- Recreational use peaked in late 1960s- Use declined due to anecdotal reports of problems associated with: “bad trips” prolonged psychotic reactions worries about possible chromosome damage self-injurious behavior “flashbacks”Pharmacology- One of the most potent psychoactive drugs No known human overdose deaths LD50 is about 400 times the behaviorally effective dose- LSD is usually taken orally Absorbed rapidly through the gastrointestinal tract- Mechanism of action Best evidence indicates that LSD acts by stimulating serotonin-2A receptors- Metabolism Metabolized by the liver Half-life is about three hours- Tolerance develops rapidly Within three to four days of daily doses Recovery from tolerance is also rapid Cross-tolerance occurs among LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin- Physical dependence to LSD or other hallucinogens has not been demonstrated Psychological and Behavioral Effects- Modification of perception Visual images: Users see shapes and patterns, usually with intense colors and brightness Users report an altered sense of time, changes in the perception of their own bodies, and alterations of auditory input Synesthesia (“mixing of senses”)o Example: sounds may appear as visual images- Enhanced emotionality Images may be perceived as beautiful and awe-inspiring or as intensely sad or frightening Time Course- Typically last six to nine hours- First 20 min: Autonomic responses occur- Next 30–40 min: Alterations in mood, perception, and sensation begin- Within 1 hour: Full intoxication occurs Loss of self-awareness and loss of control of behavior may occur Adverse Reactions- Impossible to determine true incidence of adverse reactions For example, some bad reactions may be due to drug impurities- Flashbacks DSM-IV-TR: Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder Recurrence of symptoms weeks or months after an individual has taken LSD Relative rare in occurrence- Panic reactions Relatively more common in occurrencePsilocybin- Several varieties of “magic mushrooms” Psilocybe mexicana is the most well-known- Psilocybin is primary active ingredient 1958: Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin Dried mushrooms are 0.2–0.5 percent psilocybinAcute and Long-Term Effects- Over the past decade, research has increased Recent studies have investigated the drug’s effects on feelings of spirituality- Acute effects Psilocybin dose-dependently induces intense changes in mood, perception, and thought Most individuals describe the effects as pleasurable At high doses, can cause anxiety- Chronic effects Relatively little is known One study indicated no long-term impairmentOther Indole Hallucinogens- Morning Glories- Hawaiian Baby Woodroses- Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)- AyahuascaCatechol Hallucinogens (Phantastica)Mescaline- Peyote A small, spineless, carrot-shaped cactus- Mescaline is primary active ingredient Synthesized in 1918 More than 30 psychoactive compounds have been identified in peyoteCultural Use- Native American Church uses peyote as a sacrament Church is an amalgamation of Christianity and traditional
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