1. What are the key characteristics of civilizations as outlined in lecture?- Large, sedentary communities- Agricultural intensification- Diversification of labor- “Symbiotic” economy- Centralized government- Social stratification2. What was the social function(s) of monumental architecture in ancient Egypt?- To send out a powerful message – whoever built that has a lot of power3. Describe three of the theories that have been put forth to explain the origins of civilizations. Which do you find the most convincing and why?Environmental Change:- lots of food went extinct at end of last Ice Age- didn’t have anything else- doesn’t explain shift from collecting to cultivatingPopulation Growth:- As populations grew, resources got stressed and food less readily availableCultural Revolution:- People learned enough about plants and suddenly decided to manipulate them  took 4 million yearsOUR THEORY (combination):- Environmental change & population growth – caused reliance on food sources, and caused less mobility; farming was last choice by hunter-gatherers (because population growth)4. Discuss the origins and functions of writing in Mesopotamia. Who was literate? What were written documents used for in different periods?- Originated in Sumer with cuneiform- The primary functions of writing in Mesopotamia were to keep track of records with the growing economy and to be used as an administrative tool for those higher on the social ladder, such as nobles or kings. - Keep track of goods that were bought and sold- Written documents were used to keep track of goods bought and sold, record labor, production, land use, keep track of how much something was produced, recorded to be referenced at a later date, and then later on used for poetry, mathematics, writing down storiesand myths, etc.5. Why did some cultures choose NOT to adopt the technology of writing, even after they had come into contact with literate cultures?- Writing cannot be adopted outside of the context in which it exists – aka one must adopt the social context in which writing exists in order to adopt writing- Wherever writing exists it does so in a very specific cultural context – you have to adopt the culture that had writing in order to have writing (need to change entire culture, didn’t want to do that in order to have writing; can’t have writing without that culture)- The sign does not exist outside the context which gave rise to it6. How do religious organizations and ideas play a role in the emergence of complex society in Mesopotamia and in Egypt? Be sure to cite specific archaeological and cultural examples.- Pharaohs – human connection to the afterlife (Narmer – creates Old Kingdom)- Meopotamian and Egyptians citizens believe that if they were good citizens they have a betterchance of getting into the afterlife- Religious figures were a part of high authority- Tombs built to bring elites closer to good afterlife7. What structured the relationship between Egypt and Nubia? How did this relationship change over time? What is some of the archaeological evidence for this relationship and its changes?- It changed over time due to imperialism – Egypt took over Nubia for their resources such as land and goods and food sources- As Egypt evolved, Nubia stayed as hunter-gatherers – traded together in the beginning- Archaeological evidence is that Nubian products were found in Egyptian lands and Egyptian tombs were found on Nubian land (evidence of imperialism)8. What were some of the implications and outcomes of the invention of domestication? (Think about social structure, health, economics, etc.)- Populations growth – domestication caused food supplies to become more stable and reliable;more food per acre of land, so can support larger population- Health and nutrition – not necessarily improve quality of life; closer contact with people, so easier spread of disease; same unvarying diet, poorer nutrition- Increasing mental/cultural complexity and social stratification – increase in quantity and types of artifacts, trade; sophisticated material culture, innovations in transportation (wheel), more durable buildings; shift from Egalitarian to stratified societies; full-time craft specialists*; religious/elite- Raising domesticated plants and animals requires more labor than foraging – have to clear theland, plant the seeds, tend the young plants and animals, milk goats,