PHIL 201STUDY GUIDE: LESSON 4A Little LogicLesson OverviewLogic is the primary tool or methodology in studying philosophy. Philosophy is about analyzing and constructing arguments and a good understanding of the basics of logical reasoning is essential in performing that task. The next 3 lessons will focus on logic and analyzing arguments.In this lesson, you will first be introduced to the laws of logic. These are the first principles for all reasoning. We will then discuss the specialized terminology we use in logic. Finally, we will examine 2 major kinds of logical reasoning: deductive and inductive. We will consider different forms of arguments under each and discuss how to evaluate these arguments. Take note that a large part of this lesson is about learning the terminology for logic.TasksRead and take notes from Prelude to Philosophy, Chapter 5: “A Little Logic.” As you read, makesure you understand the following points and questions:- Why are the laws of logic foundational? the laws of logic make discourse possible. if theyare not recognized as true, then nothing we claim makes any sense.- List and explain the 3 laws of logic.1. law of non-contradiction: something cannot both be and not be at the same time and in the same respect2. law of excluded middle: something either is or is not3. law of identity: something is what it is- Know the symbolic expression of the law of non-contradiction and how it clears up confusions.`(P * `P)^2`= not( )= both*= andlogical formula= it is not the cause that there can be both P and non-Pthis clears up confusion concerning the law because the logical opposite of black is non-black and not white so it includes any color and isn't just 'black and white'- Explain the common confusion concerning God and contradictions. claim God is omnipotent and can do anything including contradictions. Uses matt 19:26, but it means all things that can possibly be can be possible with God not that all things are possibleGod cannot both exist and not exist at the same time and in the same respect- Know the symbolic expression of the Law of Excluded Middle. Why is it called the Law of Excluded Middle? P v `P; either P or non-Pit excludes the possibility of something in the middle of existence and nonexistence; thereis no such thing as something half-existing and half not-existing.- Know why the laws of logic are self-evident. They are not In need of any proof beyond themselves, they prove themselves.- Know the three parts of an argument. Two premises (reasons) and a conclusion.Page 1 of 4PHIL 201- Distinguish the language of evaluating arguments (deductive and inductive) from how weevaluate propositions.1. deductive: considered sound when it is valid and the premises are true; if one assumes the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true if the reasoning is valid2. inductive: considered cogent when it is strong and the premises are true- Explain the relationship between truth value of the propositions with the validity/strength of the argument. The truth value of the propositions has nothing to do with its validity or strength, and validity or strength has nothing to do with truth value ; an argument can be valid or strong with all false propositions and it can be invalid or weak with all true propositions- Know the point about agreeing with the conclusion of an argument and it being a good argument. It is not claiming that the premises are true, but claims that if one assumes the premises are true then the conclusion must be true if the reasoning is valid; the premises guarantee the conclusion with logical certainty- Know the kind of conclusion arrived at by a valid deductive argument. If the premises areassumed to be true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false.- Note the difference in terminology between the laws of logic and the rules of valid inference.- Explain the categorical syllogism (you did not need to memorize the chart nor the 6 rules of valid inference). Features 3 categorical propositions: a major premise, a minor premise, and the conclusion.- Explain the disjunctive syllogism and know the fallacy. Is an either/or statement that affirms or denies something in terms of two alternatesfallacy of affirming the alternant: affirming one of the alternatives in the second premise doesn't get me to any conclusion- Explain what a hypothetical proposition is doing and what it is not doing. Affirms or denies something in terms of an antecedent, expressed as an 'if', and a consequent, expressed as a 'then'.- Explain the hypothetical syllogism and know the two fallacies. The pure hypothetical syllogism uses only hypothetical propositions for the two premises and the conclusionthe mixed hypo syllogism employs a hypothetical proposition for the first premise but then uses categorical propositions for the second premise and conclusionfallacy of affirming the consequent : the premise allows for the possibility of other waysto pass the course, therefore the conclusion doesn't follow that you did the work s you may have passed another wayfallacy of denying the antecedent : since doing work is only a sufficient condition for passing the course, it is possible that there may be other ways of passing.- Contrast induction with deduction.1. deduction: valid argument= conclusion follows necessarily from the premises2. induction: the conclusion only probably follows from the premises- How are inductive arguments evaluated in comparison to deductive arguments and what makes an argument stronger or weaker?1. deductive: two options; valid/ invalidPage 2 of 4PHIL 2012. induction: a strong argument is one where assuming the premises are true, the conclusion probably follows, the conclusion for a strong argument could be extremely probable, very probable, or somewhat probable- Explain the 6 forms of inductive arguments.1. Generalization2. Analogy3. predictions based on the probability calculus4. statistical reasoning5. casual inference6. argument based on authority- Know the idea of relevant similarity concerning analogies. Analogies are successful in observing relevantly similar particulars and can arrive at a probable conclusion based on that similarityView the Presentation: “Deductive and Inductive Arguments” as it is a good summary of some ofthe reading in this module/week.TermsMake sure you fully understand the following terms and concepts:- Laws of Logic = the first principles of logic- Law of Non-Contradiction = somethingcannot be and not be