Types of Social ResearchQuantitative-reduces data to numbersex. Finding % of teen mothers in U.S.-relies on statistical analysisQualitative -Relies on words, content or observations as dataex. Learning about the everyday experiences of teen mothers-Analyze by developing common themes from patterns in dataMixed Methods-using a combination of the twoResearch Method>Define the research problem>Review the evidence (literature review)>Make the problem precise (Specify your hypothesis)>Work out a research design>Carry out the research (collect your data)>Interpret the results (analyze your data)>Report the findings (publish or present them)Selecting a Research Method and DesignDependent Variable-aspects of the research we predict will fluctuate in relation to other variablesIndependent Variable-Aspects of the research we predict will exist separate from other variablesAcceptable Research Methods>Surveys (standardized ?s to specific people)>Interviews>Ethnographic (submersing yourself into a different environment)>Experiments>Historical>Comparative>Content AnalysisSampling-sample>subset of a people of a population-Population>large collection of people that a researcher studies and about which generalizations are madeTypes of Samples-Probability>Samples selected to mirror larger population(everyone has and equal chance)Random sample=everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected for a study/selection is random.-Non-Probability>some elements of population have no chance of being selectedSnowball sample=one participant refers another and so on.Research Methods: Ethics-B/c sociologist are dealing w/ real people in they everyday lives, we must be very cautious in our work.-All research they directly involves human subjects must be first approves by an Institutional Review Board-Study participants must give informed consent prior to agreeing to participate and must be debriefed afterward.Culture-set of values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors shared by a social groupValues-ideals that a society holds above all others, building blocks of normsNorms-basic rules of social conductAnother part of culture is the material we createMaterial Culture-actual physical objects that are given meaning and are symbolicNonmaterial culture-norms, laws, customs, ideas and beliefs of a group of people less tangibleCultures importance in Sociology>Culture gives meaning to society>Culture is socially constructed>Culture creates solidarity among members of society>Culture creates conflict among members of societyElements of Culture-Language -Symbols-Values-Norms>Folkways>Mores>TaboosCharacteristics of culture>Shared>Varies across times and space>Symbolic>Learned>Taken for grantedEthnocentrism-habit of seeing things from the point of view of one’s own group or culture and often that culture as superior or correctCultural Relativism-something can only be understood and judged only in relation to the cultural context in which it appears Subculture-Relatively small groups of people whose affiliation is based on shared beliefs, preference or practices that exist under the mainstream and distinguish them from mainstreamCounterculture-A group whose ideas, attitudes and behaviors are in direct conflict with mainstreamculture and who actively contest mainstream cultural practicesMicrosociology-Social InteractionErving Goffman-Influential in developing a micro perspective to inderstanding the social word through interactionOften enforced by Laws and Social SanctionsSymbolic Interactionism“He took the belief that small aspects of social life, not just major institutions, matter,and turned into a systematic theoretical perspective and research methodology”Goffman indicated at least 3 reasons why studying seemingly trivial aspects of social life matter:>Our everyday routines provide (and illustrate) the structure of our lives>Interactions reveal the importance of human agency>Interactions can tell us a lot about our larger societyImpression managementTo explicate his perspective on social interaction, Goffman wrote The Presentation OfSelf In Everyday Life-He outlined the way in which social life was, in it’s essence, theater:>We play roles for audiences>We inhabit stages and sets>We make se of props and scripts-An important part of ALL interactions is to attempt to actively control the way others perceive you-This is the heart of Impression Management, and it is crucial to identify construction-Different roles we play require different impression management ; some impression management is sincere and some is cynicalSincere- friends, family, normal, natural (being yourself without feeling like you’re being judged)Cynical- Being around someone for the first time (Putting your best face forward notexactly your true self)Types of InteractionFocused- (encounters) we directly engage someoneUnfocused- we are present with others but we do not communicate directly with them. (interact with them but no direct communication)Audience Segregation-Because we will all play different roles and these different roles require different forms of impression management, we often attempt to keep our audiences segregated-In certain types of online communication (e.g. Facebook), this is more difficult, yet it is critically important.Without Context: What does it mean?-Part of examining social interaction is to try to determine meaning even when it is unspoken(you need setting, who people are, what’re they doing, CONTEXT)Context Matters-We learn t omake sense of what people say not only through words but also throughwhat your textbook calls Shared Understandings-Communication, then, is based not only on what we say, gesture, and do, but also ona set of shared cultural understandings.Harold Garfinkel-Introduced Enthnomethodology-Study of how everyday people make sense of social interactions-He wanted to understand the ways in which people use context—shared understandings—to better understand social interactions“Had his students test the power of these shared understandings by having his students conduct Breaching Experiments.”Example of challenges:-Answering the question of “How are you?” with a complete response or a query for specification-Elevator experimentBig Questions on DevianceIn the U.S., there are many questions to ask about deviance, crime, and punishment-Why are incarceration rates so high?-Why are racial disparities so significant?-What structural forces influence criminality?-Flaws in criminal