- Thinking: the purposeful manipulation of mental representations of information- Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or event.- Concepts: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people. - Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a concept. Objects that come to mind easier - Syllogistic reasoning: formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions.- Algorithm: a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem.- Heuristic: a thinking strategy that may lead to a solution to a problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may lead to errors.- Availability heuristic: involves judging the probability of anevent on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory- Familiarity heuristics: in which familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar.- Representivness heuristic: judging people when they represent a certain category. - Well-defined problem: both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear.- Ill-defined problem: not only may the specific nature of theproblem may be unclear, the information required to solve the problem may be even less obvious - Threes stages of problem solving to organize your studying: preparation, production, and judgment. - Means-ends analysis: involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists. (Each step bring person closer to resolution)- Insight: a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be interdependent of one another. wolfgang kohler- Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use- Mental set: the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist.- Confirmation bias: the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions- Divergent thinking: thinking that generates unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions (different and inverse responses)- Convergent thinking: thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic. (Common sense responses)- Cognitive complexity: preference of elaborate and complex solutions - Intelligence is not correlated to creativity- Grammar: the system of rules that determine how our thoughts are expressed- Phonology: the study of the smallest units of speech called phonemes- Phonemes: the smallest units of speech- Syntax: ways in which words and phrases can be combinedto form sentences- Semantics: the rules governing the meaning of words and sentences- 1 year children use more complex language, telegraphic speech (no real structure but understandable) Telegraphic speech- sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out.- 3 years kids uses plurals and past tense- Language-theory approach: the theory that language acquisition follows the principals of reinforcement and conditioning - Nativist approach: the theory that genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development. - Interactionist approach: the view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmentalcircumstances that help teach language. - Motivation: the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms- Drive-reduction approached to motivation: theories suggesting that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need. - Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need- Arousal approaches to motivation: the belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity.- Incentive approaches to motivation: theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals or incentives.- Cognitive approaches to motivation: theory suggesting thatmotivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals—their cognitions. - Self-actualization: a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential own unique way. - Hypothalamus monitors glucose levels. Lateral damage-starve, ventromedial-overeat. - Eating and hunger and influenced by both biological and social factors.- Obese people have higher level of leptin, which protects body from weight loss. - Need for achievement: a stable, learned characteristic I which a person obtains satisfaction by striving and achieving challenging goals. (High need for achievement need moderate difficulty)(Measured by thematic apperception test)- Need for affiliation: an interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people.- Need for power: a tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual.- Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior- James-Lange theory of emotion: the belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as resultof an external situation.(Feeling sad because crying)- Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: the belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus.- Schachter-Singer theory of emotion: belief that emotions are determined jointly by a non-specific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues. - Facial-affect program: activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression- Facial-feedback hypothesis: facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions.- Boys are more aggressive than girls. Women have greater anxiety in their aggressiveness. Men high self esteem from abilities. Women more precise speech. Same cognitive abilities.- Socialization: process by which individual learns rules and norms of appropriate behavior from society. - Gender schema: a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender. - Progesterone: a female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries- Ovulation: the point at which a n egg is release from the ovaries.- Erogenous zones: areas of the body that are