Ch 6: Memory Strategies and MetacognitionChapter Introduction-Metacognition: your knowledge about your cognitive processes Memory Strategies-Memory strategy:oOccurs when you perform mental activities that can help to improve your encoding and retrieval Suggestions from Previous Chapters: A Review-Divided attention decreases ability to process information-Limits of working memory Levels of Processing-Research shows that you will generally recall information more accurately if you process it at a deep level, rather than a shallow level -Deep levels of processing facilitate learning because of elaboration and distinctiveness oElaboration-Concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concepts; you'll also try to relate this concept to your prior knowledge and to interconnected concepts that you have already mastered -If you use simple rehearsal or repetition, you'll be wasting your time -Create and answer "why questions" oDistinctiveness -Means that one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces-People tend to forget info if it is not distinctly different from other memory traces in their long term memory-Self reference effectoYou enhance long term memory by relating the material to your own experiences Encoding Specificity-Encoding specificity principleoStates that recall is often better if the context at the time of the encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested Avoiding Overconfidence-Foresight biasoOccurs when people have been studying for a future exam, and they are overconfident about how they will perform on this exam Strategies Emphasizing PracticeThe Total Time Hypothesis-Total time hypothesisoThe amount that you learn depends on the total time you devote to learningoGenerally trueoStudy time predicts GPA only when researchers also asses the quality of study strategies The Retrieval Practice Effect-Retrieval practice effectoYou try to recall important concepts from memory; if retrieval is difficult -- and you succeed -- your learning is enhancedoRetrieval practice improves test performance The Distributed Practice Effect-Distributed practice effectoYou will remember more material if you spread out your learning trials over time (spaced learning)oYou'll remember less if you try "cramming" by learning the material all at once (massed learning)-Helpful for long term recall because it introduces desirable difficultiesoA learning situation that is somewhat challenging, but not too difficult -A delay of at least one day between practice sessions is especially effective in boosting long term retention The Testing Effect-Testing effectoTaking a test is actually an excellent way to boost your long term recall for academic material-Testing provides a practice in retrieving the relevant material and produces desirable difficulties-When you see the task is somewhat challenging, you're not overconfident-When students complete a second test, their recall shows greater organization, compared to students who received additional study time Mnemonics Using Imagery-MnemonicsoMental strategies designed to improve your memory-Mental imageryoWhen we mentally represent objects, actions, or ideas that are not physically present -Visual imagery can be a powerful strategy for enhancing memory-Especially effective when the items that must be recalled are shown interacting with each other -They are motivating and interesting-Keyword methodoYou identify an English word that sounds similar to the new word you want to learn; then you create an imagethat links the keyword with the meaning of this new word Mnemonics Using Organization-OrganizationoTry to bring systematic order to the material they want to learn-Retrieval is easier when you have constructed a well organized framework Chunking-We combine several small units into larger units-People recalled more material when a string of letters were grouped according to meaningful, familiar units, rather than in arbitrary groups of three Hierarchy Technique-HierarchyoA system in which items are arranged in a series of classes, from the most general classes to the most specific -Structure and organization clearly enhance your recall -Example: outline First Letter Technique-First letter techniqueoYou take the first letter or each word you want to remember, and then you compose a word or a sentence from those letters Narrative Technique-Instructs people to make up stories that link a series of words together-Effective only if you can generate the narrative easily and reliably, during both learning and recall Prospective Memory-Prospective memoryoRemembering that you need to do something in the future -Among the most common memory lapses and also the most embarrassing-First you must establish that you intend to accomplish a particular task at some future time-Second, at that future time, you must fulfill your original intention Comparing Perspective and Retrospective Memory-PM focuses on action-RM likely to focus on remembering info and ideas -PM emphasizes ecological validity more -Show similar rates of forgetting and rely on regions in frontal lobe Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures-Divided attention situationoMust focus on your ongoing activity, as well as on the task you need to remember for the future -Absentmindedness especially likely when the PM memory task requires you to disrupt a customary activity-Long standing habits will dominate the more fragile PM-PM errors are more likely in highly familiar surroundings when you are performing a task automatically -More likely if you are preoccupied or distracted, or if you are feeling time pressure Suggestions for Improving PM-Reminders you chose must be distinctive if you want to perform a PM task-External memory aids especially helpful for PM tasks-External memoryoDefined as any device, external to yourself, that facilitates your memory in some wayoShopping list, rubber band around your wrist, alarm clockoOnly helpful if you can use them easily and if they successfully remind you of what you are supposed to remember Metacognition-Metacognition: refers to your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes-Supervise the way you select and use your memory strategies -Extremely active process -Self knowledgeoWhat people believe about themselvesoYour knowledge about your social behavior and your personality-MetamemoryoA topic that refers to people's knowledge, monitoring, and control of their memory Factors that Influence