Physiology Exam 4 Study GuideChapter 20 Blood - What are the main functions of the cardiovascular system?o The cardiovascular system functions as a system to transport numerous substances throughout the body such as: Nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide, hormones, iron, metabolic wastes to the kidneys and leukocytes to aid in fighting infectious agents.- What do hypeervolemic, hypovolemic and normovolemic mean?o Hypovolemic- Low blood volumeso Normovolemic- Normal blood volumeso Hypervolemic- Excessive blood volumes- What makes up 99.9% of the formed elements?o Red blood cells- What makes up 92% of the plasma?o Water Transports organic and inorganic molecules, formed elements and heat- How do plasma and interstitial fluid differ and how do the differences affect O2(oxygen) and CO2( Carbon dioxide)?o Dissolved oxygen is plasma is higher, Therefore oxygen diffuses into the tissues.o Carbon dioxide concentration is plasma is lower, Therefore carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissues.o Plasma consists of dissolved protein, intestinal fluid does not- What are the three plasma proteins in blood, which is most and least abundant andwhich is the largest and smallest, what do they do?o 60% Albumin ( most abundant) Contributes to the osmotic pressure, transports fatty acids and steroids, smallest of the proteins o 35% Globulins Act as immunoglobulins (antibodies) Act as transport proteins (transport ions and hormones)o 4% Fibrinogen (least abundant)  Involved in blood clotting, largest of the proteins - What are hematocrit readings?o The percentage of whole blood occupied by the formed elements Males: 45% (5.4 million RBCs per microliter) Females: 42% (4.8 million RBCs per microliter)o AKA Packed cell volume (PVC) Volume of packed red cells (VPRC)- What do Erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) look like and what do they lack? What are the significance of lacking such things?o Structure of RBCs Biconcave disc Thin central region Measure about 7.7 microns in diameter (1cm= 10,000 microns) Lack cell organelles Lack a nucleus ( Anucleated)o Because they lack organelles and a nucleus it has a life span of about 120 days.o Lack of nucleus significance  Allows the cell to be flexible as it travels through the circulatory system Allows for more room for hemoglobin o Lack of mitochondria significance  Mitochondria use oxygen to manufacture ATP Without mitochondria, oxygen can be transported to the tissue instead of being “used” by the mitochondria.- How many subunits does hemoglobin have? What is a heme and what is at the center of it? Where does O2 bind and where does CO2 bind?o Hemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide subunits o A heme is a porphyrin ring  They consist of an iron ion - Iron binds to oxygen- The polypeptide units bind to carbon dioxide- Oxygen and carbon dioxide do not compete with each otherfor binding sites- What are agglutinogens and agglutinins, where are they located and how do they interact? o The presents or absence of the agglutinogens( Surface antigens) determines blood typeo Agglutinins-Antibodies that will attack foreign surface antigens ( Blood types A, B and O have antibodies that will attack foreign surface antigens)- What is agglutination?o The plasma contain antibodies that will react with foreign surface antigens in a process called agglutination.- How do granulocytes and agranulocytes differ?o Granulocytes- Have large granular inclusions in their cytoplasmo Agranulocytes- do not posses cytoplasmic granules visible with the light microscope - What do leucopenia, leukocytosis, diapedesis and chemotaxis mean? o Leukopenia- indicate numbers of leukocytes, a count of less then 2500 perul usually indicated a serious disorder. o Leukocytosis- referes to excessive number of leukocytes, a count of more than 30,000 per ul usually indicates a serious disorder o Diapedesis- When a leukocyte migrates across the endothelial lining of a capillary by squeezing between adjacent endothelial cells. ( When an injury or invasion of an area by a foreign organism)o Chemotaxis –(attraction to specific chemical stimuli, Draws them to invading pathogen, damaged tissues and white blood cells already in the damaged tissues) is when the bloodstream provides rapid transportation of WBCs to injured sites, where they are attracted to the chemical signs of inflammation or infection in the adjacent interstitial fluid.- What are the 5 types of leukocytes, what do the nuclei look like in each, and what are their functions (what do they attack release, help form..)o Granulocytes: Neutrophils- (50-70%) Granules contain chemicals to kill bacteria, typically the first WBC at the bacterial site, Very active phagocytic cells,the nucleus is multilobed, eosinophils-(2-4%) Granules release chemical that reduce inflammation, attack a foreign substance that has reacted with circulating antibodies ( such as an allergic reaction or parasites), typically have a bilobed nucleus, basophils (normal range less than 1%) Granules release histamine and heparin, histamine dilated blood vessels, heparin prevents abnormal blood clotting, nucleus is usually hidden due to all the granules.o Agranulocytes: monocytes- (2-8%) large phagocytic cells, release chemicals to attract other phagocytic cells, release chemicals to attract fibroblasts (Produce collagen fibers to surrounds an infected site, these collagen fibers can produce scar tissue) The nucleus is kidney shaped or large oval shaped, lymphocytes (20-30%) responsible for specific immunity, can differentiate to form T cells, B cells and NK cells, Nucleus is typically large and round leaving a small halo around the entire nucleus or part of it - What are platelets derived from, what is the chemical inside them, what do they form and how is it similar to muscle tissue?o Platelets are derived from megakaryocytes (will fragment forming bits and pieces of membrane-enclosed packets of chemicals)o The main chemical is platelet thromboplastin factor o They clump together to form a platelet plugo They are similar to muscle tissues because they contain actin and myosin that function to contract the clot- What do thrombocypenia and Thrombocytosis o Thrombocytopenia- Lower than normal number of plateletso Thrombocytosis- Higher than normal number of platelets - If someone with a history of blood clotting has surgery, what would the surgeon prescribe as a natural blood thinner? Chapter 21 Heart- What are the layers