Theories:4!Theories of!Domestication of Plants and AnimalsTheories of Domestication!Childe’s Oasis Theory-1940’s:!Symbiotic relationships developed around scarce water resourcesBriadwood’s Hilly Flanks Theory-Late 1940’s: Culture was ready for it.! A natural progression based on relationships between H&Gs and plants and animalsBinford/Flannery Density Equilibrium Model-1960’s:!Population density drove people into marginal environments which broadened their subsistence base.! Further competition in marginal areas led to domestication.Smith’s Floodplain Weed Hypothesis 1987:!Settlements formed near rivers and slack-water areas.! People focused on seed bearing weeds and the combination of constantly disturbed, fertile soil, and the constant introduction of seeds naturally leads to domestication.Clovis First• First major cultural horizon in North America!• Characterized by Highly mobile big huntersMartin’s Overkill Hypothesis• argues that human were responsible for the late!Pleistocene extinction of megafauna in Northern Eurasia and North and South AmericaSolutrean Connection• Bradley and Standford 2004!• Clovis overshot flaking and reduction strategy!• Comparison of the Soultrean!laurel leaf and the Clovis Biface!Specialist vs. GeneralistsSpecialistGeneralists• Association of Diagnostic Paleoindian Points with Large Mammals• Multiple Kill Sites With Bison, Mastodon, Mammoth, and Caribou• Frequency of Large Animal Bones• High mobility• Megafaunal Extinction• Optimal Foraging• Presence of small animals in paleoindian assemblages• Insufficient evidence to support large game specialization• Plausibility of “Big Game” Specialization• Artifactual evidence including: Non Returning Boomerangs, Bone Fish Gorges, Netting• Optimal Foraging TheoryGeneralist vs. Specialist ! ! ! !!Generalist!!!!! Broad based Foraging!!!! Small game for subsistence! ! ! Intensive use of plant foods!!!! Lower residential mobility!!!! High logistical mobility!!!! Small Range!!!! Optimal use of labor!!!! Communal contributionsSpecialist!!!!!Obligatory big game hunters!!!! Little use of Small Game!!!! Limited use of plant foods!!!! High residential mobility!!!! Limited logistical mobility!!!! Large Range!!!! Male dominated subsistence!!!! Dependent populationIdentity vs. SubsistenceIdentity Subsistence 1. The collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which a thing is definitely recognizable or known.2. The set of behavioral or personal characteristics by which an individual is recognizable as a member of a group. 3. The quality or condition of being the same as something else. 4. The distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity.• 1. The act or state of subsisting.• 2. A means of subsisting; sustenance. • 3. Something that has real or substantial existence.• Subsist: v. 1. a. To exist; be. b. To remain or continue in existence. • 2. To maintain life; live: subsisted on one meal a day. • 3. To be logically conceivable. –tr. To maintain or support with provisionsOrigins of Controlled Fermentation• Controlled beer fermentation• two basic theories of beer processFermentation: in food processing is the conversion of carbs to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions!Role of Fermentation!• Nutrition!• Preservation• Flavor• Fun??Sacred State of Inebriation• Alexander Joffe correlates the onset of alcohol production to the onset of cultural complexity suggesting that beer not only augmented health and nutrition, but was involved in many rituals focused on individual and the group identities!• Joffe contends that alcoholic beverages were powerful tools for social control, with aggrandizes and the emerging social elites using the distribution of!alcohol to legitimize their positions of power!Origins of State Level Society• agriculture!• increased!productivity!• surplus!• sedentary settlement!• Greater infrastructure!• defense and territorial control!Characteristics:Rock artCave Painting and Rock Art!The Role of Art in Culture• expression!• interpretation of the World/Life• Sending messages, communication!• protest• entertainment• questioning of reality/conditions• etc.!ClovisClovis first: our family storyFirst major cultural horizon in north AmericaCharacterized by highly mobile big game huntersFolsom-Colfax Count, New Mexico!-Excavated 1926-28-Jesse Figgens!-10,800 to 10,600 RCYBP!-First accepted evidence of human occupation in North America during Pleistocene!-Peer reviewed site-Type site for the Folsom Paleoindian complexEarly DomesticatesAnimals:-Dogs 15,000 BP-Sheep/goats 9,000 BP-Cattle/Guinea pigs 8,000 BP-Pigs 7,000 BP-Silk moth 5,000 BP-Llama!-Camel!-Horse/Honey bee 5,000 BP-Duck 4,500 BP-Domestic fowl 4,000 BP-Cat 3,500 BP-Reindeer 2,000BPPlants:-Emmer Wheat 10,000 BP-Barley-Pepo squash-Maize 9-7,000 BP-Manioc 8,000 BP-Rice-Foxtail millet-Yam 7,000 BP-Banana!-Chili powder 6,000 BP-Sunflower 4,800 BP-Chenopod 4,000 BP-Pearl millet 3,000 BPWheat• Triticum spp.!• 713 million metric tons produced in 2013!• 3rd largest grain crop in the world• leading source of vegetable protein!• 2nd to rice as main human food crop!• "have you had your rice today" meaning: "have you eaten"Wheat Continued!1 hard red winter2 hard red spring3 soft!Use of Wheat!• hard wheats contains a high percentage of gluten!◦used to make bread and fine cake!• hardest-kernelled wheat is primarily used for macaroni, spaghetti, and other pasta products• white-and soft-wheat varieties are paler and have starchy kernels!Barely• hordeum vulgare• 136 million metric tons produced in 2007!• 4th in cereal production worldwide• two row and six row!• many uses for barely!• primarily used for animal feed• second main use as fermented beverages!• third as human foodstuff!Rye!• secale cereale!• 14.6 million metric tons produced in 2012!• production continues to decline!• primarily used for animal feed• <50% harvested for grain!◦Use of Rye:◦cover crop◦pasture feed◦hay◦alcoholic beverages◦grain◦breads!Evidence of Grain ConsumptionArchaeological Evidence of Grain Consumption!• Macro and Micro botanical remains• Mortar and pestles• grinding stones• residue analysis• stone sickles!• microliths• winnowing baskets!Younger Dryas:!A cold snap that brought cooler and much drier