PSYC 2700Exam # 2 Study Guide (Lectures: 10-16)Chapter 6: Cognitive DevelopmentI. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory- how does cognition develop.a. Piaget’s constructivist approach assumes that children discover knowledge through their own activity, moving through out invariant universal stage. He says newborn infants have little built-in-structures; only at the end of the second year are they capable of a cognitive approach to the world through mental representations.b. He theorizes that psychological structures, schemes, change in two ways:i. Through adaption, which consists of two complimentary activities- 1. Assimilations and accommodation2. Organization: the internal rearrangement of schemes to form a strongly interconnected cognitive system.3. Equilibrium describes the changing balance of assimilation and accommodation that gradually leads to more effective schemes.II. The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth- 2 Yearsa. In the sensorimotor stage, the circular reaction provides a means of adapting first schemes, and the newborn baby’s reflexes transform into the older infant’s more flexible action patterns. Eight-12 month olds develop intentional, or goal-directed, behavior and begin to master object permanence. b. Twelve to 18 month olds become better problem solvers and no longer make A-to-B search error. Between 18 and 24 months, metal representation is evident in sudden solutions to problems, mastery of object permanence tasks involving invisible displacement, differed imitation, and make-believe play.c. Studies suggest that infants display understandings prior to Piaget’s suggestions. Object permanence in the first few months as well as analytical problem solving by inferring other’s intentions.d. Displayed reference- realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things around 1st year.III. The Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)a. Advances n mental representation, language, imaginary play, and drawing. Make-believe play becomes more complex, evident in sociodramatic play. b. Dual representation- third year children realize that photos, drawings, and maps correspond to real world. c. Piaget said preschoolers weren’t capable of operation because egocentrism prevents accommodation, it contributes to animistic thinking, centration and lack of reversibility. d. Actually preschoolers can recognize different perspectives and biological properties. Also can categorize on basis of not observable characteristics.IV. The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)a. Thoughts become logical, flexible, and organized. Mastery of conservation requires decenration and reversibility. Children learn hierarchal classification and seriation. Spatial reasoning improves shown by cognitive maps. b. Actually cultural practice and learning have a large effect on these tasks.V. The Formal Operational Stage (11-older Years)a. Capable of hypothetical deductive reasoning, propositional thought- evaluate the logic of a verbal sentence without referring to experience. b. Reflect on own thought and have imaginary audience and personal fable.VI. Paget and Educationa. Piaget classroom promotes discovery learning, sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn, acceptance of individual differences.VII. Core Knowledge of Perspectivea. Infants are innately equipped with core dominions of thought that support rapid cognitive development. Each core dominion is essential to survival and develops individually. VIII. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theorya. Viewed human cognition as inherently social and saw languages as the foundation for all higher cognition. Private speech emerges out of social communication help children master tasks within their zone of proximal development. Eventually private speech is internalized as thoughts.b. Intersubjectivity and scaffolding are features of social interaction that promote cognitive processes of children. Saw make-believe-play as a way for children to learn to act on internal ideas rather than impulse. IX. Vygotsky and Educationa. Reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning, in which multiple partners simulate and encourage each other.Chapter 8: IntelligenceI. Definitions of Intelligencea. The psychometric approach to cognitive development is the basis for intelligencetests that assess individual differences in children’s mental abilities. The fist successful test, developed by Binet in 1905, provided a sing, holistic measure of intelligence. b. Researchers use factor analysis to determine whether intelligence is a single traitor an assortment of abilities. Spearman implied an underlying general intelligence though he acknowledged various types of specific intelligence. Thurston, in contrast, viewed intelligence as a set of distinct primary mental abilities.c. Contemporary theorists propose hierarchal models of mental abilities. Cattall’s identification of crystallized and fluid intelligence has influences attempts to reduce cultural bias. Carroll’s three-stratum theory of intelligence is the most comprehensive factor-analytic classification of mental abilities. II. Recent Advances in Defining Intelligencea. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence views intelligence as an of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.b. Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences identifies 8 different intelligences.III. Measuring Intelligencea. Aptitude tests and achievement tests are often used today. Infants are tested with Developmental Quotients (DQ’s)IV. IQ Differencesa. The Flynn Effect is a dramatic generational increase in IQ.b. Dynamic assessment introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to measure what the child can attain through social support.Chapter 9: Language DevelopmentI. Components of Languagea. Phonology- rules governing the speech and structure of sequence of speech sounds.b. Semantics: the way underlying concepts are expressed in words.c. Grammar: consists of syntax and morphology, markers that vary word meaning. d. Pragmatics: rules for engaging in appropriate and effective conversation.II. Theories of Language Developmenta. Language acquisition device (LAD) contains a universal grammar or storehouse of rules common to all languages. i. LAD permits children to speak grammatically and comprehend sentences.b. Chomski’s notion of a brain prepared to process language says that less hemispheric regions of this cerebral cortex are associated with language functions.III.