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BU BIOL 118 - Final Exam Study Guide
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BIOL 118 1st EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Biology & Tree of Life- Characteristics of Living Things:o Use energyo Made up of cellso Process hereditary information & has geneso Capable of reproductiono Must evolve- Cell Theory:o All cells are made of cellso All cells come from preexisting cells- Theory of Evolution:o All species related by common ancestryo Characteristics can be modified from generation to generationWater & Carbon- Orbitals: Specific regions where electrons can move around nuclei (each one can hold up to 2)- Electron Shells: Levels that group orbitals smaller the number the closer to the nucleus- Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell- Valence: Number of unpaired electrons in an atom (not the same as valence electrons)- Ionic Bonds: Electrons are transferred to one another- Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electrons in order to fill their orbitalso Nonpolar Covalent bond: Electrons are shared symmetricallyo Polar Covalent bond: Electrons are shared asymmetrically (Water is a prime example)- Molecules: Substances held together by covalent bonds- Electronegativity: ability of an atom to attract an electron, how tightly an electron can be heldo An atom with higher electronegativity holds electrons more tightly have a partial negative charge and vice versaLecture 3 - Ion: An atom or molecule that carries a chargeo Cation: An atom that lose an electron and becomes positively chargedo Anion: An atom that gains an electron and becomes negatively charged- Ionic bond: Attraction that occur between oppositely charged ionsWater- Water is a good solvent because its polarity- Hydrogen bond: weak electrical attractions between partially negative oxygen of one water molecule and partially positive hydrogen of a different water molecule- Hydrophilic: Ions and polar molecules that stay in solution because of their interactions with water’s partial charges- Hydrophobic: Uncharged and nonpolar compounds that do not dissolve in water- Water has certain properties due to its hydrogen bonds:o Cohesive: Stays together water becomes a droplet instead of spreading out (surface tension)o Adhesive: Adheres to surfaces that have any polar or charged componentswater sticks to side of beakero Denser as solid than liquid more molecules in volume of liquid than in same volume of iceo High specific heat: energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1 degree CelsiusFunctional Groups- Amino: N-H2o Amineso Act as a base attracts proton- Carboxyl: C=O-OHo Carboxylic acidso Acts as acid drops proton- Carbonyl: o Aldehydes: C=OHo Ketones: C=Oo Link molecules into larger, complex compounds- Hydroxyl: -OHo Polar groupo Act as weak acids- Phosphate: O3-P=Oo Have 2 negative charges- Sulfhydryl: -SHo Thiolso Link together via Disulfide bondsLecture 4- Amino acids are only different in their unique R-group (Side chains)- Backbone: the other part of the amino acid, is the same for all amino acids- Hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, or sulfhydryl side chains have higher chemical reactivity- Primary Structure:o Unique sequence of amino acidso Single change can radically alter protein function- Secondary Structure:o Formed by hydrogen bonds between carbonyl & amino group o Must bend to allow this, forming alpha helices or beta pleated sheetso Large number of hydrogen bonds increase stability- Tertiary Structure:o Results from interactions between R-groups cause the backbone to fold Hydrogen bonds Hydrophobic interactions Van der Waals interactions Covalent Disulfide bonds Ionic bondso Multi-helices- Quaternary Structure:o Combination of multiple polypeptides into a single structure needs two or more subunits- Hydrolysis: Break down polymers by adding water - Condensation Reaction: polymerize monomers by taking out water- Denatured: An unfolded protein that cannot function normally due to high temps or exposure to acid- Molecular chaperones: Proteins that help proteins fold correctly in cells- Prions: improperly folded forms of normal proteinso Can be infectious DNA & RNA- Nucleotide: Building blocks of DNA/RNAo Phosphate group (joins to sugar by phosphodiester linkage)o 5 Carbon sugar DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid RNA: riboseo Nitrogenous Base DNA: A,T,G,C RNA:A,U,G,C- DNA’s secondary structure consists of 2 antiparallel strands twisted into double helixo Stabilized by interior hydrophobic interaction & hydrogen bonding between base pairs- Replication steps: Strand separation (unzipping)Base pairing polymerization- DNA is a poor catalyst- How RNA is different from DNA:o Contains riboseo Contains uracilo Single stranded o Complex structure like proteins- Glycosidic Linkage: covalent interaction resulting from condensation reaction between 2hydroxyl groupso Alpha: The orientation is lowero Beta: The orientation is higherTypes of Polysaccharides- Starcho Plants use this to store sugaro Mixture of branched and unbranched alpha glucose polymer- Celluloseo Structural polymer found in plant cell wallso Polymer of beta glucose monomers- Glycogeno Animals use this to store sugaro Highly branched alpha glucose polymerLecture 5- Lipid: carbon-containing compounds that are found in organisms and are largely nonpolar & hydrophobic defined by solubility properties- Hydrocarbons: most commonly known nonpolar lipid molecule that contain only carbon & hydrogen lipids do not dissolve in water because hydrocarbon is bonded to a carboxyl group- Plasma Membrane: separates cell interior from external environment made of phospholipid bilayer- Fats & Oils:o (Triglycerides) made up of 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol (3 carbon backbone)o Formed by dehydration reaction (take out water)o Distinguished by degree of saturation & length of chain- Sterols:o Bulky 4-ring backbone & isoprene tail distinguished from one another by side groups attached to the carbons in the ringso Cholesterol: Important component is plasma membranes maintains fluidity- Phospholipids:o Has glycerol backbone attached to charged phosphate group (highly polar covalent bonds) & 2 fatty acid tails (polar)  amphipathico Upon contact with water can form: Micelles: tiny droplets (like a circle); heads face the water & the tails face each other Phospholipid bilayer: 2 sheets, hydrophobic tails attract each other- Phospholipid bilayer:o Form spontaneouslyo Very stable energeticallyo Selective Permeability: only allows certain molecules to pass through Small or


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BU BIOL 118 - Final Exam Study Guide

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