Psyc 310 1st EditionExam # 4 Study Guide Final ExamUnit 4 Review:Lecture 17 April 21Chapter 11 - LanguageLanguage is proposed to be universal – something shared by all humans. What is some of the evidence for this claim, as provided by the textbook?-Some form of language across all cultures, even sign language for those who are deaf, there are a set of rules to communicate, similar language milestones – universal developmental trendWhat are phonemes and morphemes, and how are they different? Be able to provide examples.-Phonemes: smallest sound unit you might find within a word (bit, bat)-Morphemes: smallest unit of meaning you might find within a word (cat, cats) Something that can change the meaning of the wordWhen provided with a word that has multiple meanings, what evidence is there that we initially access all of the meanings of that word?-“bug” like the insect or “bug” like the spy (listening in one phone conversations) Your reaction time differs based on the correlation with the word and it’s association (Faster response time for “ant” than “spy” because correlation/association is stronger)Compare the “syntax-first” and “interactionist” approaches to parsing sentences – what evidence is there in support of each?-Syntax: structure of the sentence, structure used to create that sentence, organizing it with the syntax first. -Interactionist: “cast iron sinks rust quickly” “The spy looked at the man with binoculars” double meaning words using both semantics and syntax to organize these sentencesDefine and give examples for the following types of inferences: Anaphoric inference, Instrument inference, and Causal inference.Anaphoric-Involves a pronoun (he or she) “Mary went to the bakery to buy a cake. She was disappointed with the selection.” You can infer Mary is the “she” who was disappointed with the selection.Instrument- When saying someone is building a birdhouse you don’t necessarily have to say a hammer was used because how else would you nail in something?Causal- Infer that one thing has caused another, may not be a direct connection. Bob took advil, headache went away.In what way might someone’s language impact their perception of and ability to make judgments about their environment? -masculine vs. feminine, organizing words in language that changes interpretation of that certainthing based on themes like masculinity and femininity. Blue- lighter shades and darker shades (royal blue, sky blue, indigo, baby blue) Categorization of information that can be interpreted differentlyLecture 18 & 19 - April 23 & April 28Chapter 12 – Problem SolvingHow do Gestalt psychologists explain problem solving in terms of 1) representations and 2) restructuring?-Representations: obstacles, something in your mind-Restructuring: If we change mental representation of that thing it will help us bypass the obstacleWhat is functional-fixedness, and how is it an obstacle to problem solving? Provide an example.-Using a knife to cut food is what it was made for, however we may use it for opening a can or a bottle and when trying to solve a problem, we may have trouble seeing the knife for anything other than something you use to cut food with. So we can’t solve problem because we can’t change our representation of the object.Compare/contrast the gestalt and information-processing (Newell & Simon) approach to problem solving.-Gestalt: Less broken down, abstract, no stages-Information-processing Approach: Tower of Henway Problem (think of baby toy with rings and having to stack them a certain way.) Initial state and a goal state. Intermediate states that will help improve and help you find the solution to get to the goal state. Moving one of the rings to the other peg, etc. Problem space.Consider “Duncker’s Radiation Problem” – Let’s say participants are asked to solve this in one of 3 conditions: 1) they hear the problem alone, 2) they first hear the “fortress story” and then the the problem, or 3) they hear the “lightbulb problem” and then the problem.a. Which group would you expect to do the best, and why?-Lightbulb first, fortress story second, problem alone last. Shared more surface structures that helped to prime the solution for the problemDescribe at least 2 differences in how an expert and a novice might organize information and solve a problem within the expert’s field.-Expert will have deeper knowledge of certain field while a novice will focus on the surface level. Expert will take a lot more time trying to analyze for the right solution. Expert will be a novice in other field areas.Lecture 20 & 21 April 30 & May 5Chapter 13 – Reasoning & Decision MakingProvide an example of a syllogism that is valid but not true.-Valid vs TrueSentence logic (taking everything as fact) means it’s valid, but is it true? If it adds up to society’s views of it, then it is true. Be able to make distinction.How would you explain the results of the Wason four-card problems using the Permission Schema vs. an evolutionary approach?-Permission Schema: Apply idea of giving permission to something in real world context vs abstract. Is someone permitted to do something? Rules put in place.-Evolutionary Approach: Cheaters. It’s to our benefit to detect when people are trying to cheat us. Cheater detection scenario. For inductive reasoning, what are some of the factors that contribute to the strength of an inductive argument?-Inductive Reasoning Strengths of Argument: Quality of observations and number of them. Morethan one trial is obviously preferred. If you were to flip a quarter once, and it falls on tails. You can’t just say it will always fall on tails because of the one time it fell on tails. Making sure you get a sample that represents the total population not a minority.What are the availability and representativeness heuristics? How does the representativeness heuristic lead to violations of the conjunction rule?-Availability Heuristic: things that come to mind more easily because they are more easily remembered. Think Summer of the Shark or Ebola. Inflated predictions of if someone they knew would get Ebola or be eaten by a shark because it was talked about so much.Representativeness Heuristic: when we have descriptive information, we may be more inclined to follow that information. Linda, bank teller, was rebellious, so she may be more involved in feminist movement. Conjunction Rule: Higher probability that she