PSYC 358 1st Edition Lecture 24Outline of Last Lecture II. Topics in Languagea. How is language acquired?i. Problems in acquisitionIII. Higher order cognitionOutline of Current Lecture IV. Problem Solvinga. What counts as a problemb. How do we solve the problem?i. Multiple problem solvingii. RepresentationCurrent LectureCognition4.30.15Overview of Problem Solving- What kinds of things/ situations count as problems?- How do we solve them?- What makes it hard?- Important issueso Multiple problem solving approaches Not just one supreme problem solving mechanism that we draw.  Thing that’s important about solving problem is the process we engage in. what do we do with our minds in order to solve a problem. When you think that way you tend to underestimate the thing that is surprisingly important. o The importance of representation Links to individual differences, experts, instruction. - The representations that are important to problem solving is the nature of the problem. So one thing you have to represent are what are the conditions that I’m currently facing, what is available to me. This sets thetable for the problem solving that occurs. These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Problem solving as perceiving- “Seeing” the answero Sometimes we see the answer as if its taking visual form in front of you. It just pops into your head. - Gestalt notions of insight and restructuring (Fig 12.2)o Sometimes we have the ability to get to an answer experientially without having done anything analytic. o Insight is just the way you’re thinking about it thinking about it thinking about it and then click some piece of the puzzle comes together and you have the answer. o With restructuring you may see the problem in a different light, which makes solving the problem easier. - How can we objectively measure the “Aha!”…o Metcalfe’s warmth ratings (12.4) She tried to find a way to objectively measure the feeling of an “aha” moment. The sense of going from not knowing an answer to suddenly its right there for you. What can you do to try to study that with the techniques of cognitive psychology? What she did was have subject keep giving warmth ratings (how close do you feel to solving the problem). With this warmth ratings, she compared problems that were insight based to problems that are more recipe like (so either it just comes in your head, or a problem that takes steps where you get closer and closer to a problem). This validated that there are sudden transitions from not knowing that you’re not anywhere on a problem, to feeling like you have complete control over it. o Are introspective reports meaningful?- Functional fixedness (Figs 12.5- 12.7) [this is a state of mind that we get into where we expect or we habitually tend to consider the objects or aspects of a situation in terms of their usual uses, names or roles. The fact that we do that habitually saves us time. It is usually effective. But a downside of this is that sometimes we fail to consider the other ways that objects can be used. Often when we’re impressed with someone’s problem solving they escape from functional fixedness and see the value of an object outside of its traditional uses. An example of someone who excels at this ability is MacGyver. o Duncker’s candle problemo Maier’s two string problemo Roles of preconceptions, implicit hints, restructuring Do not assume things that you should not be assuming.  Implicit hints mean that without anyone telling you the answer, if they show yousomething perceptually that calls your attention to thinking about something in a diff way that might be all you need to get over the top. It may be hard to do the restructuring on your own, but if you get a little nudge that may be a big help.  The more you solve these problems the better you get at them. o What are the causes/ implications of fixedness? Roles of attention, language, categorization, memory. - This phenomena of fixedness is caused by these aspects.Problem solving as search (Newell and Simon)- Problem space and operators (tower of Hanoi; Figs 12.9- 12.11)o Problem space is if at any point you are at a place or position and solving the problem can be understood as changing the circumstances that exist. Your initial state has become your desired final state. If I want to get to the other side of this room my initial state is over here, the final goal state is me over there. The search problem is what seriesof steps can I take in order to reach the goal. At any given moment you’re allowed to make certain moves, which are known as operators, the things you’re allowed to do. Theoperators in this task would be walking a certain way. In this case, solving a problem is finding the right operators in order to get the situation to change from the one you’re stuck in to the one you’re trying to achieve. - Dumb search vs. directed searcho A dumb search is to just look around randomly until you find yourself at the place you’re trying to get to. This is like trial and error. It is ok to do a dumb search when the problem is relatively constrained. You also need time for the dumb search. Also the cost of being wrong important. Is it ok to do a bunch of things that don’t work. Computers are run with dumb searches but they run so fast that’s its ok. o A more directed search is I’m not gonna try just anything, ima try things that take more sense. I’m gonna take steps that are not randomly chosen, but instead those that seem more probable. o Successful way to solve problems is to set up sub goals. So I may not know the final answer, but if I can get this part solved then it will help. - Algorithmic searcho Guarantees optimality, sacrifices efficiency Algorithm is something that is guaranteed to succeed and work. It will solve the problem. But, it does not necessarily guarantee to do it in the most efficient way.- Heuristics searcho Heuristics have the opposite goal. You’re looking for something fast and easy to do and you’re not as concerned if it will lead to a sub- optimal answer. Heuristics are great in some situations, but for interesting problems theres usually something going on, simply just moving towards the goal will not get you there. o Hill climbing Find a way to measure distance from goal Take steps that decrease