PSYC 310 1st edition Lecture 20Outline of Last Lecture I. Problem Solving & ReasoningII. Insight in Problem SolvingIII. Obstacles to Problem-SolvingIV. Information Processing ApproachV. The Importance of How a Problem is StatedVI. Using Analogies to Solve a ProblemVII. How Experts Solve ProblemsVIII. Creative Problem-SolvingOutline of Current Lecture I. Reasoning & Decision MakingII. Deductive ReasoningIII. The Wason Four-Card ProblemIV. Evolutionary Perspective on Cognition, Inductive ReasoningCurrent LectureI. Reasoning & Decision Makinga. Syllogism:i. Two statements called premisesii. Third statement called conclusionb. Categorical SyllogismThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.i. Describe relation between two categories using all, no, or somec. Many errors in evaluationi. Atmosphere effect: use of words all, some, or noii. Belief bias: if syllogism is true or agrees with a person’s beliefs, more likely to be judged validd. Cognitive processes by which people start with information and come to conclusionsthat go beyond that informatione. Deductive Reasoning: determining what must be true from given informationf. Inductive Reasoning: determining what is probably true from given informationII. Deductive Reasoninga. Syllogism is valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premisesb. If two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism’s conclusion must be truec. Conditional Syllogisms: first premise is an if-then statementi. If “p”, then “q”d. Second premise is one of the 4 formsi. Affirming the antecedent: “p”ii. Denying the consequent: “not q”iii. Affirming the consequent: “q”iv. Denying the antecedent: “not p”III. The Wason Four-Card Problema. Falsification principle: to test a rule, you must look for situations that falsify the rulei. Most participants fail to do this1. They choose to turn over the E and 4ii. When problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increaseb. Pragmatic reasoning schema: thinking about cause and effect in the world as part of experiencing everyday lifei. Permission schema: If A is satisfied, B can be carried out.1. Used in the concrete versionsa. E.g. Age and type of drink2. People are familiar with rulesc. Conditional Reasoning:i. Context (including phrasing) of conditional problems is importantii. Familiarity is not always importantd. Effect of using real world items in a conditional reasoning problemi. Determine the minimum number of cards to turn over to test: If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other sideIV. Evolutionary Perspective on Cognition, Inductive Reasoninga. Evolutionary principles of natural selection apply to cognitionb. Wason task governed by built in cognitive program for detecting cheatingi. In contrast to permission schemac. Inductive Reasoning:i. Premises are based on observationii. We generalize from these cases to more general conclusions with varying degrees of certaintyiii. Strength of argument1. Representativeness of observations2. Number of observations3. Quality of evidenceiv. Used to make scientific discoveries1. Hypotheses and general conclusionsv. Used in everyday life1. Make a prediction about what will happen based on observation about what has happened in the