Chapter 6 athlete and fan violence in sport settings Key terms Violence o The use of excessive physical force which causes or has the potential to cause harm o Frequently viewed as deviant behavior but may be deemed necessary to preserve order or social norms e g police and civil unrest o Various acts of physical aggression o A form of physical assault based on an intent to injure maim or destroy the person or property of an individual Aggression o Verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate control or do harm to another person o All behavior intended to destroy another person s property or injure a person psychologically or physically Intimidation o Verbal or physical behaviors e g words and gestures that threaten violence o Usually does not cause physical harm or injury but may cause emotional or psychological harm Perspective 1 Drive discharge instinct theory Sports provide healthy outlets for individuals to let off steam release feelings of aggression and learn to cope with stressful situations o Has received a considerable amount of research attention over the years Instinct theory Sport viewed as having a cathartic effect Proponents view sport as a safe haven to release destructive energy or pent up emotions Some theorists believe that both players and spectators safely release energy via sport Catharsis the perceived safe release of unwanted or undesirable energy Basic assumption Humans are instinctively aggressive and certain sports namely contact sports provide a safe outlet for aggressive tendencies and behaviors Shortcomings Limited data suggesting that aggressive behavior in humans is the product of biologically based destructive energies Assumes that all sports provide safe outlets for aggressive energies for both players and spectators Research does not substantiate the cathartic effect sport supposedly has Keefer et al 1983 Possible explanation Vigorous physical exertion in sports may make people less violent due to physiological or biochemical changes in the body Some research tends to support this theory Morgan 1984 Research suggested Vigorous exercise is related to the reduction of o Muscular tension o Certain forms of anxiety o Depression The question centers around whether the changes bring about the positive effects or whether there are other factors e g time advice etc Some researchers suggest that time may be a factor which gives individuals the perceived less aggressive tendencies cool down time o Rethinking a response Others contend that it may be a combination of factors o Time away from an anxiety provoking situation o Focusing attention in other directions o Physical exertion These factors may lead to less aggressive tendencies Key points It is misnomer to suggest that merely engaging in a sport or physical activity actually leads to lower levels of aggression For example Do you think that a very competitive player whose self worth self identity or ego is tied to a sport will be less aggressive if he she chooses to use their sport to minimize aggression and they lose a game or match to a marginal opponent Perspective 2 Cultural pattern model Sports arouse aggressive tendencies and behaviors in players and fans Sports may teach individuals that success often requires aggressive tactics Smith 1983 Noted that there does not appear to be any evidence that indicates that watching sports serves to eliminate the frustrations of spectators Can you remember how you felt after your favorite team loss a closely contested game or match Controlling aggressive behavior Aggressive tendencies and deviant behavior may be controlled via various sport forms For example boxing and the martial arts are viable forums that can encourage individuals to control and manage violence Researchers contend that the philosophy within the sport form is an essential element as well as the conditions under which sport participations occurs Trulson study 1986 Studied three groups of male juvenile delinquents and tae kwon do Found a decrease in aggressive tendencies when training included a sports philosophy When training did not include a sport philosophy aggressive tendencies tended to increase among similar individuals Research Researchers suggest that there may be a disconnect between what coaches purport to teach in contact oriented sports and what they actually teach For example Coaches often hail football as a sport that teaches discipline and self control Yet the coaching manner and approach may foster and support hostility and physical domination of opponents Frustration and aggression Frustration often accompanies sport participation o It may lead to aggressive violent acts According to Berkowitz 1969 two things are necessary for frustration to lead to aggression o The frustration must give rise to an emotional response of anger o The situation must contain opportunities and stimulus cues for aggressive behavior The combination of anger opportunities to be aggressive and the existence of stimulus cues i e things that can be used as tools of violence increase the likelihood of aggressive behaviors o Anger and violence are apt to occur when players feel they are victims of unfair calls by referees and tactics by opponents o Stimulus cues are strongest in sports which use equipment that can be turned into weapons e g hokey sticks baseballs football helmets etc Note o Anger plus opportunities and stimulus cues do not automatically lead to violence they only increase the likelihood that violence may occur Spectator aggression or fan violence Several things frequently exist when frustration among fans leads to aggression o Significant identification with a participant or team e g soccer hooligans o Anger must be the dominant emotional response among the fans o Opportunities for aggression and or stimulus cues must be present Spectator violence o Relatively rare in light of the many sport activities that occur without incident o When it occurs it s often tied to what happened on the field Hooligans o Associated with malevolent soccer behavior o Working class men who disrupt soccer games o Ritual violence via intimidation and aggression o Fantasy driven status posturing Rollo May psychotherapist stated in Power and Innocence A search for the causes of violence 1972 o When people are powerless or perceive themselves as powerless and without resources violence may be the only way they can achieve a sense of significance Frequent outcome in cases of abuse physical or