NFS 53 1st EditionFinal Exam Study GuideLecture 16 (March 16)i. Fruit and extraction1. Fruit Juices:a. Pressingb. Centrifugec. Pasteurizationd. Concentrationi.e apple cider2. Fruit Oil:a. Cold pressing – mechanically pressing the fruit or seeds.b. Expeller pressing -squeezing fruits or seeds at high pressure. c. Chemical solvents – removing oil from seeds with solvents.i.e Olive OilLecture 18 (March 24)I. Eggsa. Types of eggs consumedi. Chicken, turkey, duck, quail, turtle, crocodile, fishb. Egg structurei.c. Why chickens?i. Chickens are “indeterminate layers” and will keep producing eggs indefinitely as long as they are taken away.ii. Can develop a system for “egg production” that trumps the simple biology of reproducing the chicken species.iii. 8 billon chicken eggs consumed in the United States.d. Parts of the eggi. Chalazae1. The chalazae are twisted cords of egg white that anchor the yolk to the egg itself 2. The air pocket always found in eggs is a product of two protective membranes pulling away from each other so that the growing chick can have air. 3. The air pocket is an indicator of freshness – larger is less fresh.ii. Egg Shell1. Has been used for cooking in the past, particularly in mixes used to clarify various hot liquids iii. Egg Yolks1. Contains 75% of the calories of the egg (in the form of lipids), as well as most vitamins and minerals (iron, thiamin, Vitamin A).2. Color comes from plant-derived xanthophylls, color determined bywhat the chicken eats. 3. Made up of tightly packed spheresiv. Egg White (Albumen)1. Mostly water (90%) and protein. 2. The proteins in the egg white are important for the versatility of cooking with eggs, and determine egg structure both when raw and when cooked.v. Ovalbumin1. Ovalbumin is the majority of the protein in eggs. This protein gels easily and denatures easily when heated. It also contributes to theoverall flavor and texture of the eggs. 2. The proteins have denatured and have coagulated resulting in a tighter protein network that blocks the light.vi. Ovomucin and Ovotransferrin1. Ovomucin is the compound that keeps egg white thick and determines the quality of the egg from a commercial and culinary point of view.2. Ovotransferrin is a defensive protein that makes iron non-bioavailable, but it also coagulates first and so determines the temperature at which eggs sete. Egg cookery Ii. Protein coagulation1. Similar to milk proteins2. Coagulation is when proteins that do not interact for whatever reason are made to do so, and form a solid mass where previouslythey had been disassociated3. In milk, this happens with casein either in the presence of acid or rennet (chymosin), or with lactoglobulin in the presence of heat and acid and the absence of casein it can bind to4. Want to “denature” or unfold the globular proteins by physically or chemically breaking the bonds that hold them in their original, compact, folded shape5. Want to concentrate the proteins enough allow them to interact and bond, forming a network which, on the macro scale, is a solid mass6. But in eggs the process is different than in milk – we almost alwayswant to avoid overcoagulation, which, for example, makes scrambled eggs lumpy or even gritty, with an unappealing surface moisture7. “It’s all about the heat, the heat”a. All of the parts of the egg coagulate below 212 ºFb. parts of eggs coagulate at different temperatures – yolks between 150 and 160, whites between 145 and 180 and the mixture around 165.ii. Coagulation Control1. Acids and salts encourage earlier but less complete coagulation2. Acids lower the pH and thus neutralize the generally negatively-charged proteins in eggs3. Salts do something similar, with their disassociated ions again neutralizing the proteins4. Proteins are less unfolded in each case, and cannot unfold easily once coagulated – this produces a more tender final product. 5. Extra liquid, sugar, and fat delay coagulation and produce a more tender final product f. Egg cookery IIi. Emulsification1. Egg yolks are particularly rich sources of emulsifiers, mostly low-density lipoproteins and phospholipids2. This is due to the complex aggregations of proteins, lipids, and membrane-forming compounds in egg yolks3. Egg yolks can emulsify an astonishing amount of oil and water – a single egg yolk can emulsify more than a dozen cups of oil4. Salt makes egg yolk a far more effective emulsifier, as it makes more of the substructure available to use for emulsification.g. Egg cookery IIIi. Foams 1. Egg white foams are the most common and can be made just by whipping egg whitesa. The proteins in egg whites are unfolded by beating, exposing portions that are nonopolar, which are then attracted to the bubbles being introduced by beatingb. Once unfolded and concentrated at the surface of bubbles,the proteins bond to each other, forming a network that traps the bubbles and makes a stable foamc. Acids and copper help stabilize the foam by preventing over-bonding between proteins – they both cause sulfide bonds between cysteine groups to be unable to formd. Sugar makes foams more dense and stabilizes them by making the liquid between the air bubbles more viscous2. Egg yolksa. Require extra liquid to foam, because most of the water in egg yolks is bound up (and they’re low water to begin with)b. Egg yolk proteins are more stable, and do not denature with just mechanical force – the foam must be heated to cause them to unfold and bond to each otherc. Thus, classical egg yolk foams involve extra liquid and heating, e.g. zabaglioneii. Eggs’ emulsifying power – in the proteins and fats – help stabilize foamsiii. The ability of the proteins to coagulate – and their abundance and sensitivity to mechanical force and heat – sets the foams Lecture 19 (March 26)I. Meal preparation and USAD dietary guidelinesa. Executive summaryi. 2015 DGAC identifies that a healthy dietary pattern is higher in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, low- or non-fat dairy, seafood, legumes, and nuts; moderate in alcohol; lower in red and processed meat; and low in sugar-sweetened foods and drinks and refined grains. ii. Vegetables and fruit are the only characteristics of the diet that were consistently identified in every conclusion statement across the health outcomes. Whole grains were identified slightly less consistently compared to vegetables and fruits, but were identified in every conclusion with moderate to strong evidence.iii.