Psych 240 1st EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 15-21Psych 240 Exam 3 Review SheetLecture 15: LanguageI. Properties of Languagea. Mapping from sounds we make to meaning is (mostly) arbitraryi. Occasional exception: Kiki and Bouba demo1. 90% of ppl call sharper one Kiki and rounder one Boubab. Symbolicc. Generativei. We produce sentences we’ve never heard beforeII. Language Levelsa. Phonemes: smallest unit of sound in a languagei. Different in diff languagesb. Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning in languagec. Wordsd. Phrasese. Sentences*Syntax: how you put words into phrases and phrases into sentencesIII. Phrase Structures: same words can be grouped into phrases differently which changes meaningi. Active voice is easier than passive voice sentences for semantically reversible sentences 1. NOT TRUE for semantically irreversible sentences2. Suggests interaction of syntax and semantics during comprehensiona. Semantics matters (not just semantics or syntax)b. Ambiguityi. Lexical: same word can mean diff thingsii. Syntactic: take same words and group them differently IV. Language Processing:a. Bottom-up stepsb. Role of vision in speech perceptioni. McGurk Effect1. If somebody’s lips look like they’re making a sound other than what you’re hearing, then you’ll hear something in btwn2. It’s not just what we hear but also what we seec. Language processing is predictivei. N4001. Brain wave that’s specific to oddball’s (unexpected words) w/ low cloze probabilityii. ERP technique1.iii. Cloze ProbabilityV. Lexical Accessa. Context Effectsb. Swinney Priming Experimenti. Initially, evidence suggests ppl access all possible meanings then context comes in and selects context quicklyVI. The Neurobiology of Languagea. Broca’s Aphasiai. Lesions in left inferior frontal cortexii. Difficulty w/ language production buy language comprehension is typically fineb. Wernicke’s Aphasia: speak in “word salad”i. Damage in temporal parietal areasii. Difficulty w/ language comprehension as well as productionc. The neural pathway for repeating a heard word (Gashwin)i. Signal goes to auditory cortex to hear it  Wernicke’s area to understand it  Broca’s area to plan to repeat it  motor cortex to actually move the musclesii. Auditory cortex to Wernicke’s  Broca’s area to motor cortexLecture 16: Language AcquisitionI. What must be learned (problem of language acquisition)i. Learning language w/o neg feedback about grammar/pronunciation; suggests linguistic universalsb. Stepsi. Distinguishing language sounds from other soundsii. Parsing sounds: breaking them apart into phonemes and then the phonemes into words 1. No clear divisions btwn phonemes or words in speechiii. Word meanings1. Even though same word can refer to diff things and diff words can refer to the same thingiv. Syntax/grammar rules1. Do this w/o significant neg feedback from their parentsa. Suggests that maybe we’re born to do this (acquire language)b. Commonalities (universal principles in language)II. Language Developmenta. Phonemesi. Can discriminate all phonemes from all languages during 1st year, gradually lose non-relevant discriminationsb. Motheresei. Adults help kids w/ high pitch, slow rate, exaggerated intonationIII. Major Stagesa. Holophrastic: (one-word) stagei. Kids are producing a single word but they can understand phrases w/ morethan one wordii. Characterized by under-generalization and overgeneralization b. Telegraphic: (two-word) stagei. Kids are producing two-word utterances and typically show some grammar. Convey a lot of info in few words (similar to a telegraph)c. Learning syntax/rules/generalizationi. U-shaped learning of irregular past tense; nonsense words1. Initially start saying “went”, then go back to “goed” when they apply grammar rules to everything (over-regularizing), but then re-acquire “went”2. Children are acquiring general purpose of rules for their languageIV. Learning Word Meaningsa. Parts/wholesi. If there’s a rabbit, look at his ears. You know that the ears are some part of a rabbitb. Bias toward shapei. Kids typically assume a new word they’re learning refers to the shape of an obj rather than its color or texturec. Critical period effects: there’s a critical period when kids need to start learning a language if they ever want to achieve native fluency (usually before age 12)i. Social isolation1. Kids who were spoken little to have trouble acquiring language andwill never achieve fluencyii. 2nd language1. If you start at age 12, twenty yrs of study won’t make you fluent. If started at age 5, you can become fluent w/ 10 yrs of study iii. Sign language1. If you start acquiring sign language as an adult, you’ll never be able to use it completely (fluently)Lecture 17: Skill AcquisitionVII. Memory: procedural knowledge is diff from declarativea. Procedural: knowing how to do somethingi. How to tie your shoe, how to ride your bikeb. Declarative: knowing that somethingi. Facts and knowledgeI. Skill Learning (three stages)a. Cognitivei. Most information is declarativeii. Requires attentioniii. Teachingb. Associativei. Strengthen connections – what aspects of the motor skill work and don’t work1. Practice serving tennis – what works?ii. Eliminate errorsc. Autonomous/automatic i. Fast, less attention, less verbalizationii. Feedback is less importantiii. Need for consistent practiceII. How to get from declarative to procedurala. ACT-R: procedural memory as production rulesi. Procedural Memory: production rules 1. If-thena. Whenever the “if” part is satisfied, the “then” part gets executedb. Outside of conscious controlii. Declarative memory: semantic network1. Novice: declarativeiii. Knowledge compilation: compiling declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge1. Proceduralization : taking a single piece of declarative knowledge and converting it into a single if-then production rule2. Composition: taking multiple if-then production rules and composing/combining them together into one fluid production ruleIII. How are Motor Programs Representeda. Evidencei. Response chaining (too fast)1. Playing a C major scale, C triggers D which triggers Eb. Abstract program: not specific musclesi. Abstract away from the specific muscles you’re using1. Writing your signature on a piece of paper (using wrist muscles) vs. writing your signature on a board (using your shoulder muscle) a. The signatures still look similar so there must be some levelof