Lecture One-----------------------------------------------------Solution- a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances (molecules)Solvent- the majority species in a solution (liquid)Solute- minority in solution (will dissolve)Homogenous- completely mixedColligative properties- properties of solution that depend only on the number of solute particles per solvent moleculeRules of solubilitySolubility- dissolves in waterAlkali Metals- cations with +1 charge1. All ionic salts that involve alkali metals and ammonium ion are highly soluble.2. All nitrate and acetate salts are very solubleMolarity (M)- moles of solute / per liter of solutionCan’t be negativeMolality (m)- moles per solute per kilogram of solventExample:First find the moles of EGn=(1.2kg / 1)(1000g / kg)(1 mole / 62.1g) = 19.3 moles EGThen we calculate m…m=(19.3moles / 4.0kG H2O) = 4.8 mFind M….M= (19.3 moles EG / 4.1L) = 4.7 MMole Fraction:(moles of species) / (sum of moles)Percent by Weight:(grams of some species) / (Grams of all species) x100Percent by Volume:(volume of solute) / (sum of all volumes) x 100Parts per million (ppm) billion (ppb) trillion (ppt)Same as percent by weight (106,109,1012)Thermodynamics- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -System- group of molecules that interact with each otherState function- Properties of a reaction that do not depend on time or pathway by which the reaction proceeds1. Enthalpy = H (Heat absorbed during a reaction)Exothermic2. Entropy = S (Increase in the randomness of a system)3. Free Energy = G (Whether spontaneous or not)What happens on the molecular level when a salt (KF) dissolves in water?Hydrated ion- water is coordinating to the ionsLecture Two-------------------------------------------------------Bond breaking always absorbs energyBond making always releases energyCoordinate bonds- weak bonds, electrons remain property of water (Water=hydration)Dissolution-Exothermic- heat released (hydration wins) (negative H)Endothermic- breaking bonds tough (positive H)Molar enthalpy of solutionCoffee-cup calorimeter- measure heat before, and after (MUST be constant pressure)Temperature goes up- heat released (-)At end delta H will be negativeHeat- form of energy (Joules or calories)Temperature- measure of heat (unit degrees C)Conversion:1 calorie = amount of heat required to raise 1 mL of water 1 degree C1 calorie = 4.184 joulesSo if 100 mL of water went up by 6.8 degrees C..? calories = (6.8 C X 100mL / 1)(1 calorie / 1 C x 1 mL)= 680 calories? Joules= (680 calories / 1)(4.184 joules / calorie)= 2845 joulesHess’s Law- decompose reactions into simpler reactionsAdd enthalpy changesEnergy is released when hydration bonds formChange in enthalpy for overall reaction is same no matter how it’s reachedNomenclature minute-ium- it’s a cation (positive)-ate- anion (negative)Entropy (S)- determine solubilitySecond Law of Thermodynamics- universe will move from a state of greater order, or a state of greater disorder (reflected in delta S)Pressure- force per unit area1 atm = 760mm of Hg1 Pascal = 1 newton/meter squared1 bar = 100,000 pa1 atm = 1.01325 barStandard state- most stable/commonSolid- at 1 bar and 25 CSolution- 1 MGas-1 bar/atmHalogens- diatomicAlkali metals- elemental metal (Li,Na,K,Cs,Rb)NaCl= -441.1 kJ/moleGeneral reaction:aA + bB  cC + dDChemical Equilibrium- most are reversibleA + B  C + DC + D  A + BAfter long time, concentration of ABCD occur at same rate, reach equilibrium (When opposing rates are equal both reach equilibrium)Lecture Three----------------------------------------------------------Henry’s Law- solubility of a gas in a liquid (its concentration) is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid (at equilibrium)Liquid + Gas = liquid (with gas dissolved)[Gas] = kH Pgas[Gas] = (1.3 x 10-3)(0.21) = 2.7x10-4 mol/kgmol/kg = molalityLe Chatelier’s PrincipleA + B = C + D[A]eq (Concentration os A at equilibrium)[B]eq[C]eq[D]eqStress system by adding more A…[A]stress = [A]eq + [A]extra(No longer at equilibrium and needs to respond to stress)-System will respond and try to relieve stree[A]new eq = [A]stress – [*][B]new eq = [B]eq – [*][C]new eq = [C]eq + [*]if a molecule of A reacts then a mole of B will react(Exothermic)Gas + Solvent = Gas(dissolve)Enthalpy(heat) is being releasedGas + Solvent = Gas(dissolved) + heat-Raise temperatureWill lower solubility of gas(Endothermic)Heat + Gas + Solvent = Gas(dissolved)Shift to rightSolubility of gas increaseAll qualitative(Water colder then more soluble)Colligative Properties of solutionsProperties do not depend on the nature of the solute- only its concentration.Example: Raoult’s Law of Vapor Pressure LoweringAll solvents have a vapor pressureNonvolitile solute- has no vapor pressureVapor pressure of water- 1 atmWater+solute= temperature will be a little bit lowerAlter boiling point by adding soluteP solvent (above solution) = X solvent Psolvent(above the pure solution)-If pure solvent, mole fraction of solvent 1Solute + solvent = 1Molecules that leave liquid and going gas phase must have high kinetic energyBoiling point elevation- have to go to a higher temperature to reach high pressure and 1 atmGreater concentration of solute, the greater the deviation in the temperatureFreezing point depression- elevates boiling pointWhen freezes, they form 3D latticeWhen a solute is added, this disrupts the organization… so you must lower temperature and get liquid to freezeOsmotic pressure-difference in pressure (pi)Semipermeable membrane- solid sheet of material that can allow certain molecules to pass through (water) but wont allow solute to pass throughAverage KE of a solute declines when added to a solutionWater molecules on side with solute have lower kinetic energyWater without solute is strongerOsmosis- movement of solvent molecules from a semipermeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentrationpiV=nRT (big effect)0.082 liters*atmosphere per mole per degree Kelvins1oC = 298 KLecture Four-----------------------------------------------------------Colligative properties- don’t depend on identity, but only concentration is importantActivity-effective concentration of a species in solution (rather than measured concentrations)Concentration-Solutes at low concentrations- move independentlyHigh concentrations- solute acts differently, molecules interact and start to move slower (Crowding slows molecules down)Kinetics-