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Clemson BCHM 3050 - Exam 4 Study Guide

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BCHM 3050 1st EditionExam # 4 Study Guide Lectures: 27-35Lecture 27 (March 25)What is the difference between a transition and transversionmutation?Transversion – purine replaced with pyrimidine and pyrimidine replaced with purineTransition mutation – 80% of mutation; replace purine with purine and pyrimidine with pyrimidineWhat is worse – a frameshift mutation or a missense mutation?A frameshift mutation is worse because it changes more than one amino acid, while a missense mutation only changes one amino acid.Lecture 28 (March 27)How does UV radiation affect the production of Vitamin D and Folic acid?Vitamin D production proportional to light penetrationFolic acid (Vitamin B9) destruction proportional to light penetrationHow did people come to adapt a lighter skin color?When people with dark skin moved away from harsh sunlight, they could not absorb the little bit of sunlight needed to aid them with melanin. Over time, the people adapted to have lighter skin color in order to be able to obtain melanin.Lecture 29 (April 1)What is an epimer? What are some examples?Epimers – different at only one carbon atom (ex: glucose)Glucose and Manmose are epimers around carbon atom #2Glucose and Galactose are epimers around carbon atom #4What is a reducing sugar? What is an example?Reducing sugar – galactose has a free OH group when a part of lactoseThis means that the OH group at carbon #1 in galactose ring can form more glycosidic bonds and react with other molecules. Therefore, Lactose is a reducing sugarLecture 30 (April 3)What is cellulose?Cellulose a polysaccharide that functions in plant cell wall structure. It is composed of beta-glucose units that create a 3D mesh connected by hydrogen bonds. Humans do not have the enzyme to digest cellulose.Describe the very first step in glycolysis.- As soon are we consume glucose, the body attacks it- Be able to write out this pathway from memory- Hexokinase – adds a phosphate group to glucose à glucose 6-phosphate- This is an energy investment phase because ATP is invested- When hexokinase meets glucose, it is committing glucose to go through glycolysis- Exothermic reactions are spontaneous à irreversible- Glucose 6-phosphate inhibits/regulates hexokinaseLecture 31 (April 6)Compare glucokinase to hexokinase. - Glucokinase is the sister enzyme to hexokinase- Glycogen – alpha 1, 4 - Glucokinase works in the liver and is a much higher pay in value- Km of the two enzymes is vastly different – hexokinase is 10 times lower à means that ithas a better affinity- Hexokinase is the enzyme that usually carrier out glycolysis- Too much glucose à use of glucokinase- Insulin is needed to activate glucokinaseDescribe the energy payoff stage in glycolysis.- DHAP is converted to Gald-3P- Two Gald-3P is oxidized to pyruvate- 2 NADH and 4 ATP are produced- NADH is generated with dehydrogenase – NAD+ is getting reduced to NADH- Dehydrogenase also carried out phosphorylation so technically it is also a kinaseLecture 32 (April 8)In general, describe the citric acid cycle.- Pyruvate is a 3 carbon atom containing molecule- 2 molecules of pyruvate at start- 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 3 CO2, GTP are the products of this reaction- Enzyme converts pyruvate into acetyl-coA which carries out the Krebs cycleà pyruvate itself doesn’t actually carry out the krebs cycle- Pyruvate dehydrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes the step before the start of the Krebs cycle- Inside of the mitochondria is the matrix, where pyruvate dehydrogenase is found àpyruvate processing àpyruvate loses 2 CO2à forming acetyl-coA (2 molecules of NADH formed)- Start with 6 carbon glucose in glycolysis à all carbon atoms are broken down and released at 6 CO2 moleculesWhat enzymes are involved in the citric acid cycle? List them in the order in which they are used in the cycle.Pyruvate dehydrogenase, Citrate synthase, Aconitase, Isocitrate dehydrogenase, a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, Succinyl-CoA synthetase, Succinate dehydrogenase, Fumarase, Malate dehydrogenaseLecture 33 (April 10)What is reduction potential?- Reduction potential – the potential of a compound to get reduced- Higher the reduction potential = more likely to attract electrons and get reduced; good oxidizing agent- Good oxidizing agents get reduced themselves and help other molecules to get oxidized (positive reduction potential)- Idea of electron transport chain is that electrons are going from one chemical to anotherchemical à always go from low reduction potential to a high reduction potentialGive an overview of the electron transport chain.Electrons come from NADH (which was generated during glycolysis and krebs cycle) à electronsflow through all 4 complexes à oxygen accepts electrons at the end to form water- Transfer of electrons generates ATPLecture 34 (April 13)What does each of the four complexes of the electron transport chain do?- Complex 1 – oxidized NADH back to NAD+o Complex 1 is rich in flavoproteins and iron-sulfur proteins and ubiquinome; neverfind cytochromes or copper in Complex 1- Complex 2 – succinate dehyrogenase generates FADH2, which gives up its electrons to other proteinso succinate dehydrogenase complex; FADH2 passes electrons to Fe-S protein; end up giving protons to CoQ; receives electrons from FADH2- Complex 3- cytochromes gives up and takes electronso contains Fe-S proteins and cytochromes, no flavoproteinso Electrons go to cytochrome C outside of complex 3- Complex 4- cytochrome c oxidase is conserved across species o has copper that accepts the electrons and donates them to oxygen to reduce it towaterWhat are some “poisons” that serve as inhibitors of respiratory electron transport?- Antimycin is an anti-fungal à blocks electron transfers within complex 3- Carbon monoxide blocks the transfer of electrons from copper to oxygen- Cyanide à blocks electron transfer from copper to oxygen also- Barbituate (truth serum) inhibits transfer of electrons from Complex 1 to Complex 2Lecture 35 (April 15)What is an “alternate oxidase” in plants?- Skunk Cabbage smells due to heavy smell from sulfur- They have complex 1 and 2 but not complex 3 or 4- CoQ gives enzymes directly to oxygen so we cannot inhibit this pathways with cyanideo They have an alternate oxidase- An alternate oxidase à lesser ATP produce and the extra energy is lost as heat à increase the temperature so these plants always feel warmAbout how many molecules of ATP are harvested for each molecule of NADH and


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