Chapters 51 Study GuideAnimal Development and ReproductionLearning Objectives:- understand and compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.- understand specific features of the egg before (e.g., egg coverings) and after fertilization (extraembryonic membranes).- understand the mechanisms associated with the egg and sperm cells during fertilization- understand the key processes for each of the three main stages of development—cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis- become familiar with male and female reproductive structures and their functions- build an understanding of the role of hormones in the male and female reproductive cycles.- understand what happens in the post-fertilization phase.I. Production of gametesa. Know each step of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.i. Spermatogenesis1. Meiosis I2. Meiosis II3. Spermiogenesisii. Oogenesis1. Oogonium --(Oocytogenesis)--> 2. Primary Oocyte --(Meiosis I)-->3. First Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte --(Meiosis II)--> 4. Secondary Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovumb. Make sure you can compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis.i. Know when primary and secondary oocytes occur during oogenesis1. Primary oocyte- meiosis I2. Secondary oocyte- meiosis IIii. Know when primary, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids occur during spermatogenesis1. Primary spermatocyte – mitosis2. Secondary spermatocyte- meiosis I3. Spermatids- meiosis II c. When in the individual’s development does meiosis I and II take place for males and females?i. Know what Sertoli and Leydig cells are in malesa. A Sertoli cell is a cell found in the testes. Its main function is to help the developing sperm cells through the stages of spermatogenesis - the process of turning stem cells into sperm.2. Where is sperm produced in the testes?a. Seminiferous tubules1Chapters 51 Study Guide3. What is the structure of sperm cells?a.ii. Know what polar bodies are in females1. What is a follicle, Graffian follicle and corpus luteum?i. Follicle: egg with follicular cells around it ii. Graffian Follicle : Mature ovarian vesicle, which has ruptured during ovulation to release the ovum. b. How do they fit in with the female reproductive cycle?2. When are eggs completely mature? Be able to explain.a. Mature follicle cellsb. Secondary oocytec. Zona Pellucida2Chapters 51 Study Guided. AntrumII. The Egg a. Know the coverings of the egg i. Oviparous animals- Vitelline envelope: formed from extracellular componentsEx: chicken, fish, turtlesii. Mammals- Zona pellucida: formed from extracellular components iii. Aquatic Species- Jelly layerEx: Sea Urchin iv. Specialized organelles- Cortical granules b. Differences in egg coverings for various organisms -- terrestrial and aquatic (oviparous vs. viviparous) i. Be able to label the coverings3Chapters 51 Study Guideii. Know what the coverings are made of and what they doIII. Extraembryonic membranesa. Know the four extraembryonic membranes—be able to list functions and to identify them (allantois, chorion, yolk sac, amnion)1. Allantois: for collection of nitrogenous waste2. Chorion: For gas exchange 3. Yolk Sac: For protection and nourishment4. Amnion: For protection and prevention of desiccation ii. How do they differ between amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals) and fish & amphibians?1. Reptiles, birds, and mammals: shelled egg or uterus 2. Fish and amphibians: eggs laid in water, no special water-filled enclosure required. iii. What are the differences amongst the amniotes?1. shelled egg vs. uterusa. Shell: outside of bodyb. Uterus: inside bodyIV. Fertilizationa. What are the requirements for fertilization to occur?i. Sperm and egg must meet at the same place at the same timeii. Must recognize and bind to each other iii. Must fuseiv. Fusion has to trigger the onset of development b. What are the three steps involved with fertilization? i. Acrosomal reactionii. Cortical reactioniii. Activation of eggc. Be able to describe in detail and identify main structures associated with each step.i. Acrosomal reaction1. Hydrolytic enzymes released to dissolve jelly coat 2. Sperm-binding proteins bind sperm to egg cell plasma membrane3. Sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse and sperm nucleus enters the egg4Chapters 51 Study Guideii. Cortical reaction1. IP3 is released from the plasma membrane near the site of sperm fusion 2. IP2 stimulates Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum3. Ca2+ stimulates exocytosis of cortical granules4. The contents of the granules cause the vitelline layer and plasma membrane to separate, and also to destroy sperm binding proteins. The vitelline layer of the egg hardensa. How is polyspermy blocked?i. By the creation of a fertilization envelope iii. Egg activationV. What are the three stages (phases) of early development?i. Cleavageii. Gastrulationiii. Organogenesisb. Be able to define, identify key characteristics and structures, and describe the outcome of each of the following:i. Cleavage1. Know what animal pole and vegetal pole meansa. Animal pole: future ectoderm b. Vegetal pole: future endoderm i. What is meant by complete vs. incomplete cleavage (meroblastic and holoblastic)1. Meroblastic: incompleteII> Birds and Fish 2. Holoblastic: Complete 5Chapters 51 Study Guide2. How long does it take for cleavage to be completed?a. 7 days 3. Know the stages and key terminology such as 2-cell, 4-cell,morula, blastocoels, blastomeres (be able to identify)4. Endpoint is blastula or blastocyst depending on the organism 5. Be able to identify/label stages and structures as learned in class.ii. Gastrulation1. How long does it take for Gastrulation to be completed?a. 10-14 days 2. Know what type of organ system(s) each layer—endoderm,ectoderm and mesoderm—gives rise to.a. Endoderm: Digestive Tube, Pharynx, and Respiratory Tube b. Ectoderm: Epidermis, Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous Systemc. Mesoderm: Notochord, Skeletal and Muscle Cells, Kidneys, and Red Blood Cells 3. Know key structures and what they are: blastocoel, blastopore (becomes anus in deuterostomes and mouth in protostomes), and archenteron (primitive gut).4. Endpoint is the gastrula6Chapters 51 Study Guidea. Know the three main things that result from gastrulationi. The three embryonic tissues are arranged in layersii. The gut has formediii. The major body axes have become visible 5. Be able to identify/label stages and structures as learned in classiii. What is embryogenesis?1. Embryogenesis is the process