BiofuelsWhat are the potential problems with biofuels?Energy Ratios (De Vries et al. 2010)ER = energy output/energy inputFargione et al. 2008Miles and Kapos 2008The ecological perspective on biofuelsThe ecological perspective on biofuelsButler et al. 2009GHGs, conservation and biofuelsThe MIT-Woods Hole modelPotential loss of natural areasLoss of natural areas due to their conversion to crop and pasture agriculture and cellulosic biofuels between 2000 and 2050 as simulated by the deforestation (a) and intensification (b) scenarios.Tilman et al. 2006Young and Sommerville 2014GEOG 300I 1st Edition Lecture 19Biofuels- GEOG 300i- Week 10What are the potential problems with biofuels?- Biofuels and food – what is the link- Biofuels and deforestation – what is the link- Biofuels and GHG – what is the link?- Why are biofuels and energy choices in general a wicked problems?- The trade offs- The global dimension and link with climateEnergy Ratios (De Vries et al. 2010)ER = energy output/energy inputFargione et al. 2008- Soils and plant biomass are the two largest biologically active stores of terrestrial carbon,together containing ~2.7 times more carbon than the atmosphere.- Converting native habitats to cropland releases CO2.- After a rapid release from fire used to clear land or decomposition of leaves and roots, there is a prolonged period of GHG release.- The amount of CO2 released during the first 50 years of this process is the “carbon debt”of land conversion.- Over time, biofuels repay this carbon debt if their production and combustion have net GHG emissions that are less than the emissions of the fossil fuels they displace.- Until the carbon debt is repaid, biofuels from converted lands have greater GHG impacts than those of the fossil fuels they displace.- Converting native ecosystems to biofuel production results in large carbon debts:- “Converting lowland tropical rainforest in Indonesia and Malaysia to palm biodiesel would result in a biofuel carbon debt of ~610 Mg of CO2 ha−1 that would take ~86 years to repay.- Until then, producing and using palm biodiesel from this land would cause greater GHG release than would refining and using an energy-equivalent amount of petroleum diesel.”- Converting native ecosystems to biofuel production results in large carbon debts:- “Converting tropical peatland rainforest to palm production incurs a similar biofuel carbon debt from vegetation, but the required drainage of peatland causes an additional sustained emission of ~55 Mg of CO2 ha−1 yr−1 from oxidative peat decomposition.- After 50 years, the resulting biofuel carbon debt of ~3000Mg ofCO2 ha−1 would require ~420 years to repay. However, peatland of average depth (3 m) could release peat-derived CO2for about 120 years. Total net carbon released would be ~6000 Mg of CO2 ha−1 over this longer time horizon, which would take over 840 years to repay.- Converting native ecosystems to biofuel production results in large carbon debts:- “Soybean biodiesel produced on converted Amazonian rainforest with a biofuel carbon debt of >280 Mg of CO2 ha−1 would require ~320 years to repay as compared with GHG emissions from petroleum diesel.”Miles and Kapos 2008- Tropical deforestation makes a major contribution to emissions of greenhouse gases, especially if the additional emissions from subsequent land use are counted- REDD (Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) is a UN-sponsored program aimed at developing a financial mechanism to help developing countries maintain their forests.- http://www.un-redd.org/- It’s a forest protection program- The form of any final mechanism will affect the area and location of forests encompassed and thus the scope for cobenefits (such as biodiversity conservation, livelihoods,and watershed protection).- Still not clear if in the future REDD will be funded through- Traditional grants (the case today)- A market-based mechanism.- Developing countries sell carbon credits on the basis of successful reductions in emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, to help developed countries achieve emissions targets- A market-based mechanism would generate significant additional funding to reduce deforestation rates in developing countries.- Estimate range from $1.2 to $10 billion a year;- These are large sums in comparison with current investment in forest protection.- World Bank funding directed to forest biodiversity conservation and related activities in 2002 totaled U.S. $257 million (9).- In the mid-1990s, total protected area expenditure in the developing world was estimated at U.S. $695 million annually; not exclusively invested in forests.- In contrast, forestry exports from the developing world were worth over U.S. $39 billion in 2006.- By generating an income of the same order of magnitude, REDD could provide strong incentives for forest conservation.- REDD is focused on carbon only – it will not solve all environmental problems!- For REDD to make a successful contribution to combating climate change, countries implementing it will have to target threatened forests with a total high volume of carbon in their biomass and soils- Priority areas for tackling deforestation to reduce emissions will not always reflect other forest values- Conservation,- livelihoods support,- delivery of fresh water- Some sites may be less valuable from a carbon perspective but of high priority for other reasons.- The need for additional resources to prevent deforestation at such sites will vary depending on the carbon price, the carbon content of the ecosystem, and the cost of avoiding deforestation- The limited funds available for conservation will need to be carefully targeted in this context.- To conserve the diversity of ecosystems and their related species and services, it may be more efficient to focus conservation funds on nonforest ecosystems and low-carbon forests rather than on forests covered by the new mechanism- One obvious risk associated with REDD is the displacement of pressures, resulting from continuing demand for food, timber, and increasingly biofuels, to ecosystems perceived to contain low carbon levels.- The least-productive forest ecosystems may become the most threatened simply because they are the only remaining accessible source of land and forest products.- Other areas experiencing increased pressure could include nonforest ecosystems such assavannas or