PSYC 1000 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 9 - 14Lecture 9 (March 2)SleepBiological necessitates that cannot be fought for more than a few days. Discussion: Why do we need sleep? Evolutionary: predators and cliffs, things we try to avoid, sleep because we cant see at night Rest and Recuperation: Helps body and brain rest Memory: sleeps helps memory strongerCognition/Neural Pathways: brain stays active to keep connections and pathways Growth Hormones: Children release growth hormones while sleepingBiological Rhythms: Annual, monthly, Circadian 90 minute sleep cycleStages of SleepStudied by:EEG: measures electic encephalogram brain (measure electricity in the brain) (sleep spindles: spike of function)EMG: electromyogram Muscle movement EKG: Electrocardiogram Heart rateEOG: Electrocculogram eye movement REM SleepParadoxical Sleep (stage 5): REM stage. Stage when dreaming, about 90 minute cycles.- Body is paralyzed from neck down during REM sleep. (So you don’t act out dreams)As we get older, we need less time sleeping and less REM sleep.Lecture 10 (March 4) DreamsFreud: “The Interpretation of Dreams” unconscious wishful thinking. 1. Manifest content: what one actually dreams (Freud said this has more meaning)2. Latent content: underlying true content (Freud interprets dreams have other meanings)Some Theories about Dreams:Dreaming helps strengthen neural connections and memory Activation Synthesis Theory: brain is trying to make meaning out of random neural static. (trying to interpret chaos) Sleep Disorders: Insomnia: Difficulties falling asleep and staying asleep, cause by a variety of things, like a symptom of other conditions. Like stress, relationship problems, physical and mental injuries, substance abuse, anxiety, etc. Somnambulism: (sleep walking) could be occasional, but very dangerous. Myth: you should not wake someone while sleepwalking. Occurs during stage 4, so they may be hard to wake up (wont remember in the morning). Causes: chemicals in brain could be off, but also unknown. Most cases, there is not dreaming during sleepwalking. Narcolepsy: Neurological disorder, characterized by suddenly falling into REM sleep, like seizers. Night Terrors: Seen in mostly children, sympathetic activation (stage 4) they are not dreams, andwill not remember in the morning. REM Behavior Disorder: Dopamine issue in the brain, usually in stage 5 we get paralysis so we don’t act out our dreams, but in this disorder the paralysis does not happen so they act out their dreams.Sleep Apnea: When someone stops breathing in their sleep, waking up many many times throughout the night but are not conscious of waking up so they wake up exhausted. Could be very dangerous. Psychoactive DrugsSubstance Abuse: any harmful use, nothing to do with how often, often overdose. Substance Dependence: Closer to addiction, more complicated however: 1. Physiological: presence of tolerance and withdrawal, 2. Psychological: Craving the effects, such as hanging out with friends listening to “stoner” music Drug CategoriesStimulants: Anything that increases central nervous system, ex. Cocaine, caffeine, meth, nicotine(reliving withdrawal stimulant) Depressants: Anything that decreases central nervous system. Ex. Alcohol, (social lubricant), antianxiety medication, Hallucinogens: Cause sensory and perceptual distortions, effecting serotonin pathways in brain Ex. LSD, DMT, Opiates: derived from opium pain relievers, cause intense pleasurable experience. Ex. Morphine, codeine, heroineEcstasy: both stimulant and hallucinogens, very textual, causes extreme dehydration from overheating. Marijuana: Stimulant, Depressant, and hallucinogen. Hypnosis: People say they have entered an altered state of consciousnessPeople also say they are playing out a social roleLecture 11 (March 9)Behavioral Learning Learning: Durable change in behavior due to experienceConditioning: 1. S-S Stimulus- stimulus, (lightning and thunder)2. S-R-S-R-S Stimulus-Response, (waving $20 scenario) Habituation: getting used to a situation or stimuli Classical ConditioningDeveloped by Russian psychology: Ivan Pavlov Neutral Stimulus (NS): Bell (don’t tell us a response) ComputerUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (so learning) MintUnconditioned Response (UCR): Salivate (no learning) putting hand out in response to mintConditioned Stimulus (CS): Computer soundConditioned Response (CR): reaching out hand for computerLecture 12 (March 18)Operant Conditions: BF Skinner Positive reinforcement: the addition of a reward following a desired behavior.Positive punishment: works by presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future.Negative reinforcement: which strengthens a behavior by taking away a negative outcome as an effect of the behavior.Negative punishment: happens when a certain desired stimulus/item is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future.Applied RemovedDesirable Positive Reinforcement Negative Punishment Undesirable Positive Punishment Negative ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Rat example, after every 10 levers pulled the rat would receive food pellet. Fixed Interval Schedule Give the reward after every one-minute, even if they pull the lever more, must wait 1 minute to get food, rats do a slower rate of response.Variable RatioReceives reward after random times, like 2, 5, 7, 9, 12 minutes, rats cannot tell when they will get the food, Variable Interval Receives reward at random times, a certain amount of time must pass, but the time is always different. Shaping: when you reinforce the subject when they get closer and closer to the target behavior, slowly building. Ex. Kid trying to touch podium, “good” pigeons playing ping pong, rats playing basketballLecture 13 (March 30)MemoryMemory is the basis for knowing your friends, neighbors, the English language, national anthem, and yourself. If memory was non existent, everyone would be a stranger to you, every language. Studying memory:Information processing models: encoding  storage  retrieval Modifications to the Three-Stage Model1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.Automatic