3 30 15 Chapter 7 Female athletes and Gender Equity Contemporary issues and concerns Basic factors for increased female sport participation New opportunities New programs and activities have been developed for females Active participation encouragement and avidity have led to more opportunities Government legislation Title IX 1972 has been the most comprehensive federal mandate Signed into law by President Richard Nixon Grove City v Bell 1984 Supreme Court ruling adversely affected approximately 800 Title IX cases Civil Rights Restoration Act 1987 counteracted rove City v Bell The women s Movement mid 1960s Worldwide movement that raised consciousness of women and men Movement helped to redefine occupational and family roles Increased sensitivity awareness and empathy toward plight of women Health and fitness movement mid 1970s heightened awareness in health and fitness nationally Women became more actively involved in physical activity and sport On going concerns about the anorexic model look Increased media coverage Impacted and increased interest and role modeling Heightened visibility has impacted socialization attitudes and stereotyping Preconceived notions about athletic prowess and potential dispelled 1996 Olympics featured 10 more events for women 3 for men than 1992 U s female Olympians outnumbered men in 2012 Olympics games increased television coverage Societal changes and elite sport evolution Activists and outspoken women e g BJ King demanded changes Legislative mandates upheld title IX with sanctions NCAA replaced AIAW 1982 as governing body for women s sports Important points HS female athletes increased 616 between 1971 1980 More than 1000 increase between 1971 2014 Female athletes 4 yr colleges increased 600 between 1971 2014 Congress overrode President Reagan s veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act in 1988 King beat Riggs in Battle of the Sexes tennis match before millions of TV viewers at the Astrodome in 1973 United states women won World Cup in 1999 IOC all male from 1894 1981 Many decisions inhibited full female involvement in Olympics No female 1500m race until 1972 or marathon until 1984 Sports bra jog bra invented in 1977 Athletic shoe companies design footwear for women in 1990s Air swoops becomes first female endorsed show in 1996 Cautious optimism potential inhibitors to increased participation Budgetary constraints Institutional belt tightening and budgetary shortfalls may adversely affect female programs specifically low income women Female programs are vulnerable to cuts due revenue generation and perceptions cuts to female programs are usually disproportionate because they are often under funded from the outset An anonymous quote Coakley 2009 P 240 conveys the view of many female administrators it seems like the only time women s programs are treated equally is when cuts must be made Resistance to Government Policies and Mandates Title IX compliance has been problematic and bitterly challenged See Coakley 2015 pp 199 201 Backlash from Equity Opponents Resentment toward equal access Concerted efforts to thwart sport equity emphasis on power sports with little or no female involvement Cautious Optimism Potential Inhibitors to Increased Participation cont Disproportionate Number of Women as Coaches and Administrators Growth impacted by lack of women in leadership positions career aspiration role modeling career access research themes funding initiatives decision making impacted by paucity of female leadership females in leadership roles decline post Title IX Coakley 2015 pp 206 209 Health Fitness and Physical Activity Concerns overemphasis on cosmetic fitness may lead to a preoccupation with heterosexual appeal superseding overall health and fitness concerns fashion trends may discourage women from sport and fitness activities research studies document excessive use of taxatives diuretics self induced vomiting and starvation diets Trivialization of Women s Sport athletes and contests frequently ridiculed and marginalized women subjected to a double bind catch 22 when involved in sport Heavily criticized for sport skills shortcomings when highly skilled questions surface about their sexuality tomboy Stereotypic views based on nicknames mascots Blue Chicks Certain sports deemed female or lady like e g gymnastics tennis golf etc Cautious Optimism Potential Inhibitors to Increased Participation cont Homophobia and Lesbian Hysteria heightened fear of lesbians gay men and bisexuals engaging in sport feminity and heterosexuality must be proven via marriage kids and attire Emulation of the Male Sport Model adoption of win at all cost attitude and acceptance of the Sport Ethic improprieties and decline in academic achievement concern over sport ideals e g sportspersonship ethics morality etc Advocacy Groups Several National and international organizations have been established to champion the rights of girls and women in sports and physical activity programs Women s Sport Foundation WSF most celebrated national lobbying group for women founded by Billie Jean King in 1974 Women Sport International international organization comprised of over 30 countries seeking increased female involvement in physical activities and sport programs International Working Group on Women and Sport IWG advocacy group formed to empower women in sports and physical activities established in 1994 from conference in Brighton England National Association of Girls and Women in Sport NAGWS oldest sport advocacy organization for women established in 1899 previously one of the six major organizations comprising AAHPERD International Support Brighton Declaration named associated with delegation of women from 80 countries met in Brighton England 1994 to discuss policy recommendations for women in sport Title IX and Gender Equity Social Scientists contend that most individuals in the U S and other countries agree that women should have equal participation opportunities as men few are willing to make the changes necessary to bring about equity Resources serious inequities have existed regarding women s facilities equipment and training Media Coverage often marginal sexist and discriminatory Sponsorship Agreements traditionally lacking Sport Participation still considered nontraditional in certain sports Increased Opportunities does not necessarily lead to increased employment College Coaching Positions of Power only 44 of women s teams were coached by women in 2004 contrary to 90 in 1972