PSYCH 150 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 12I. Psychology as a scienceA. Characteristics of science1. Systematic empiricism= contrast with “casual observation”2. Public knowledgea. Replicationb. Unbiased, objective3. Testable problems (falsifiable)4. Set of attitudesa. Skepticismb. CuriosityII. Steps in the scientific method: The research processA. Begin with: Theory (A general explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events)B. Hypothesis (a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research)C. Evidence (research/observations)D. Drawing ConclusionsE. Theory construction OR modificationF. New research questions OR hypothesesIII. Goals of the scientific method: Description, Prediction, ExplanationA. Description1. Methods of observationa. Naturalistic observation= observing the natural setting of the organismb. Laboratory observation=learning the setting of the organism in a tested environmentc. Participant observation= looking at certain types of organisms (people in psychologicalinstitutions)d. Case study= (HM, phineas Gage)e. Survey researchi. Population (the entire group of people of interest to the researcher) vs. sample (a smaller group selected from the population for study)ii. Representativenesso Representative sample (reflects the true characteristics of the population) vs. biased sample (does not reflect the true characteristics of the population)o Sampling techniqueso Probability sampling (every member of the population has some chance of being in the sample)o Random sample (every member of the population has an equal chance of being in the sample)o Systematic sampling (every kth element is sampled after a randomly determined start; k = any number)o Stratified sampling (a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample)o Nonprobability sampling o Convenience sampling (most common of all sampling techniques) participants are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit (e.g., Introductory Psychology students)iii. Sources of bias in survey researcho The interviewero Interviewer biaso The participanto Carelessnesso Memory problems (under/over reporting)o Direct misrepresentation (lie)o Social desirabilityo The sampleo Volunteer bias (reflects the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not)B. Prediction1. Correlationa. Correlation coefficienti. Directiono Positive correlationo Negative correlationo No correlationii. Strengthiii. Advantagesb. Cannot imply causation due to:i. Directionality problemsii.Third variablesC. Explanation (causal understanding) = 1. Experimental researcha. Characteristics of experimentsi. Independent variable (IV) – variable that experimenter manipulates (ie. Steroids cause violent behavior)ii. Dependent variable (DV) – variable that experimenter measures (aggressive behavior)iii. Experimental Controlo Avoid confounding variables (variables other than the IV that are not equivalent across groups) ex: group taking anabolic steroids are weight lifters, groups not taking steroids (placebo) are not weight lifters.iv. Experimental group vs. control groupb. Sources of bias in experimental research (& ways of reducing/eliminating bias)i. Selection bias or Selection Factor (any process that may create groups not equivalent at the beginning of the study, e.g., when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study)o How to avoid?o Random assignmentii. Placebo effect (a physiological or psychological change that occurs as a result of the mere suggestion that the change will occur)o How to avoid?o Placeboiii. Demand characteristics (aspect of the research that suggests to the participant what behavior is expected)o How to avoid?o Cover stories (deception)iv. Experimenter bias (any effect the expectation of the researcher might have on themeasurement of the dependent variable)o How to avoid?o Naïve experimenters (don’t know hypothesis)o Blind experimenters (research assistants are unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment)o Double-blind study (neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the treatment)IV. Protecting participants in researchA. What is ethical research?1. Providing freedom of choice a. Informed consent2. Deception3. Debriefing (or debrief)B. Ensuring that research is ethical1. Institutional review boardStudy Guide for Chapter 2 – Biology & BehaviorYou should be able to define / describe / provide an example of / identify an example of: I. Cells of the nervous system: The neuronA. Parts of a neuron1. Cell body (also called Soma) – contains the nucleus2. Dendrites – branch out from cell body & receive signals from other neurons3. Axon – slender tail-like extension of the neuron that transmits signals to other neuronsB. Types of neurons1. Sensory (afferent) neuron – transmits messages from the senses to the CNS2. Motor (efferent) neuron – transmits messages from the CNS to the muscles3. Interneuron – transmits information between neurons in the CNSC. Other cells in nervous system1. Glial cells (specialized cells in the brain and spinal cord that hold the neurons together and remove waste products such as dead neurons)a. Myelin - fatty substance that encases and insulates axons and speeds up transmission of neural impulsesII. Communication between neurons: Neural firing (neural impulse)A. Resting neuron 1. Resting potential (-70 mV) B. If a portion is stimulated beyond its threshold, it briefly reverses polarity1. Action potential (rapid depolarization to approximately +35 mV) electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along the axon of a neuron2. Permeability changes (ion channels open/close)3. All-or-none principle4. Refractory period (4-5 ms) – a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire 5. Resting potential is restoredIII. Communication between neurons occurs at the synapse A. Synapse – a junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell bodyof another neuron (communication between two neurons occurs here)1. Pre-synaptic vs. post-synaptic neuronB. Firing neurons release neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) that cross the synapse1. Neural impulse (the