Bilingualismproductive bilingualismspeakers can produce and understand both languagesreceptive bilingualismspeakers can understand both languages, but have more limited production abilitiesL1: the language learned firstL2: the language learned secondsimultaneous bilingualismL1 and L2 learned about the same timeearly sequential bilingualismL1 learned first, but L2 learned relatively early, in childhoodform the largest group world widenumber increasing, particularly in countries with large immigration ratesLate bilingualismL2 learned later, in adolescence or afterstudies of bilingualism (diary study of Leopold)code switching (aka language switching)tendency of bilinguals when speaking to other bilinguals to switch from one language to another, often to more appropriate words or phrasesvariable between individualsother factorsduration of exposure to L2personalitycognitive attributes of the person learning L2proficiency in L1development of L1 and L2 is interdependentbenefits of bilingualismmetalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibilitysuperior verbal fluencyslower cognitive aging(<> interference: increasing proficiency in L2 by immigrant children is associated with reduced speed of access to L1)Bilingual language processingseparate-store modelseparate lexicons for each language connected at the semantic levelevidence: repetition priming is much greater and longer lasting within than between languagesRepetition priming: amount of facilitation gained by repeating a wordcommon-store modeljust one lexicon and one semantic memory system, with words from both languages stored in it and connected directly togetherevidence: semantic priming produces facilitation between languagessemantic priming; suggest that equivalent words share an underlying semantic representation that can mediate priming between the two wordsmixture of common and separate storesevidence: concrete words, culturally similar words and cognates act as though they are stored in common <> abstract and other words stored separatelycognates: words in different languages that have the same root and meaning and which look similarevidence: language system is flexible in a bilingual speakerlow level blockinguse low level information to block words in the non target language at a very early stage (so that the meanings of these words do not become activated)  discrimination between the two languages takes place at a very early stageTranslation between languages (Kroll and Stewart)direct links between words in our mental dictionaries or entries mediated by semantic links?forward translation by conceptual mediationtranslate words from L1-> L2must access the meaning of a word in order to translate itbackward translation by word associationfrom L2->L1use direct links between items in the lexiconevidence) semantic factors have an effect on forward translation, little/no effect on backward translationbackward translation is usually faster than forward translationbackward translation semantically mediatedsemantic variables affect translation times in backwards translation (although to a lesser extent than if forward translation)translation in both directions involve semantic representations of the wordsextent of conceptual mediation increases as the speaker becomes more proficient in L2picture-word interference studyin production, only words of the target language are considered for selectioneye-tracking studyboth languages are automatically consideredModels of bilingualismBilingual Interactive Activation Plus (BIA +) modelhow we recognize cognates (words that look the same in the two languages)lexical access in non-language specific in its earliest stages, so words from both languages are activated, whatever the inputnetwork of nodes at each level of representation (Words, phonemes) connected together by facilitatory and inhibitory connectionsbottom up processword recognition not affected by particular tasklanguage nodes can receive activation from words (bottom up) also can send top-down inhibitionsecond language acquisitionnaturalisticallyclass-based instructionreasons why learning a second language is difficultcritical periodless time and motivation to learnsimilarities and difference between L1 and L2Time course of L2 acquisition : U shaped curveMethods used to teach a 2nd languagedirect methodall teaching done in L2 with emphasis on conversational skillstraditional methoddirect translations from L1 to L2. Lectures in grammar in L1Audiolingual methodspeaking and listening are emphasized rather than reading and writingsubmersion methodlearner is surrounded exclusively by speakers of L2 usually in a social setting or foreign countryimmersion methodlearner taught exclusively through medium of L2Monitor model of 2nd language learning (Krashen)acquisition and learning distinction hypothesislearningemphasizes explicit knowledge of grammatical rulesacquisitionemphasizes their unconscious usechildren acquires their first language largely unconsciously and automatically (They do not learn it)natural order in acquisition hypothesisthe order of acquisition of syntactic rules and the types of errors of generalization made are the same in both languagesmonitor hypothesisacquisition processes create sentences in the L2, but learning enables the development of a monitoring process to check and edit this outputcan only happen if there’s sufficient time in the interactionuses knowledge of the rulescomprehensible input hypothesisin order to move from one stage to the next, the acquirer must understand the meaning and the form of the inputrole of comprehensionactive filter hypothesisattitude and emotional factors are importantindividual differencesphonetic coding abilitythe ability to identify new sounds and form associations between them (phonological awareness)grammatical sensitivitythe ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words and other syntactic structuresrote-learning abilityinductive learning abilitythe ability to infer rules from dataworking memoryvoca learningmotivationhow can we make 2nd language acquisition easier?make L2 acquisition more like L1 acquisition by providing sufficient comprehensive input (Krashen)immersion method (complete exposure to L2)Four Cs (Sharpe)communicationculturecontextconfidenceThe speech chainMondegreensexcuse me while I kiss this guyOlive, the other reinderr“I am heyv” as a response to “behave!”“I don’t want to go to your ami” in reply to going to MiamiWhy is speech perception