BIOL 2457 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 14 - 23Chapter 6 Bone tissues Know the blood and what all it contains, know your marrow (red, yellow marrow) passageways of osteocytes, Know bone structureBone: Bone contains three types of cells: osteoblasts, which deposit bone; osteocytes, which maintain the bone; and osteoclasts, which resorb bone.The functional unit of compact bone is the osteoncanaliculi is the plural form of canaliculus; any of many small canals or ducts in bone or in some plantsBone structure: (Top from bottom) Proximal epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis, distal epiphysis (Top from bottom) Articular cartilage, epiphyseal line, spongy bone, endosteum, periosteum, medullary cavity, compact bone Passageways of osteocytes: An osteocyte, a star-shaped cell, is the most abundant cell found in compact bone. Cells contain a nucleus and a thin ring of cytoplasm. When osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix they secrete, they become osteocytes. Osteocytes are networked to each other via long cytoplasmic extensions that occupy tiny canals called canaliculi, which are used for exchange of nutrients and waste. The space that an osteocyte occupies is called a lacunaRed Marrow: Red blood cells platelets and most white blood cells arise in red marrowYellow Marrow: some white blood cells develop in yellow marrow. The color of yellow marrow is due to the much higher number of fat cells. Yellow marrow is in medullary cavity. Chapter 7 Axial Skeleton Know everything containing the axial skeleton (skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, thorax) Be able to differentiate between temporal occipital parietal frontal bones and there sutures, Know types of bones (spongy, irregular, regular, sesamoid, etc) Know your sutures, know your disorders of vertebral column, know what the calvaria is and what is made up of it Axial skeleton: Skull- (Cranial bones: parietal, temporal, occipital, frontal, ethnoid, and sphenoid) (Facial bones: Maxilla, Zygomatic, Mandible, Nasal, Platine, Inferior nasal concha, Lacrimal, Vomer) Hyoid bone, Vertebral column- (Cervical vertebrae, Thoracic vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae, Sacrum, Coccyx) Thoracic cage- (ribs, sternum)Sutures: Frontal and parietal intersect by coronal suture, parietal and parietal are intersected by sagittal, and parietal and occipital are intersected by lamboidal.Types of bones: Long bones- (Femur, Humerus and Tibia but are also some of the smallest including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and Phalanges. The classification of a long bone includeshaving a body which is longer than it is wide, with growth plates (epiphysis) at either end, having a hard outer surface of compact bone and a spongy inner) Short bones- (Short bones aredefined as being approximately as wide as they are long and have a primary function of providing support and stability with little movement. Examples of short bones are the Carpals and Tarsals - the wrist and foot bones) Flat bones- (Flat bones are as they sound, strong, flat plates of bone with the main function of providing protection to the bodies vital organs and being a base for muscular attachment. The classic example of a flat bone is the Scapula (shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium (skull), os coxae (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs are also classified as flat bones) Irregular bones- (These are bones in the body which do notfall into any other category, due to their non-uniform shape. Good examples of these are the Vertebrae, Sacrum and Mandible (lower jaw)) Sesamoid bones- (Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones, imbedded in a tendon. The most obvious example of this is the Patella (knee cap) which sits within the Patella or Quadriceps tendon.)Calvaria is made up of frontal parietal and occipital Chapter 8 Appendicular skeleton Know all the bones in appendicular skeleton (Pectoral girdles (4 bones) - Left and right clavicle (2) and scapula (2). Arms and forearms (6 bones) - Left and right humerus (2) (arm), ulna (2) and radius (2) (forearm). Hands (54 bones) - Left and right carpals (16) (wrist), metacarpals (10), proximal phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10). Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right hip bone (2). Thighs and legs (8 bones) - Left and right femur (2) (thigh), patella (2) (knee), tibia (2) and fibula (2) (leg). Feet and ankles (52 bones) - Left and right tarsals (14) (ankle), metatarsals (10), proximal phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10).) know distal and proximal ends of bones, whether they are superior or inferior, know how many bones are in the pelvic girdle (3, ischium, iliam, pubis) Proximal end: close to origin Distal end: farther away from origin Superior: head is superior from your feet Inferior: feet is inferior from head Pelvic girdle: has 3 bones the ischium, ilium, and pubisChapter 9 Joints Know the names of the joints that move slightly move and don’t move at all and examples of each, elevation and depression, know origin, insertion, bellyAnother name for an immovable joins is a synarthrosis ex: suturesAmphiarthrosis (a slightly movable joint) ex: ribs attached to sternum Diarthrosis (a freely movable joint) ex: knee joint Elevation: is smiling, or moving body part upwards Depression: is frowning, or moving body part downwards Origin: The origin is the bone that stays put.Belly: What is in between origin and insertion Insertion: The insertion is the bone that moves when the muscle is contracted.Chapter 10 Muscular Tissues Know Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle (The Contraction Cycle, The onset ofcontraction begins with the SR releasing calcium ions into the muscle cell The calcium ions bind to actin opening the myosin binding sites) Know what makes the body contract,know differences endomysium, epimysium, and perimysium know order of it, know the steps of contraction (eccentric, concentric, isometric) A skeletal muscle contains many long fibres arranged in bundles called fascicles. Each fibre consists of smaller strands, called myofibrils. These contain yet smaller parts called myofilaments. A muscle contracts when sets of these myofilaments slide past each other in response to nerve signals.Epimysium is a dense layer of collagen fibers and separates the muscle from the surround tissueand organs.Perimysium divide the skeletal muscle into a series of compartments each containing a bundle of muscle fibers call fascicle.Endomysium surrounds the individual skeletal muscle cells