Book chapters covered: 6-7Major issuesTermsATY 253 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Book chapters covered: 6-7 Major issues How do we define a species? What are some of the problems with this? We define a species as anaturally interbreeding group that is reproductively isolated from other groups (Biological Species Concept). Some of the problems with this definition are: 1) some very different organisms still interbreed naturally (ex: Olive baboons and Hamadryas baboons), and 2) a person cannot tell if species would interbreed from their fossils; you cannot tell what their behaviors were like. How does speciation occur? This is the creation of new species. It can occur, for example, in allopatric speciation, due to geographic isolation followed by genetic divergence. The rate of speciation occurs according to the number of open niches (ways of living). What do we mean when we say that evolution is “mosaic”? Evolution is a mixture; rates of evolution are different for different traits (ex: our stature, our teeth, our brains) From an anthropological standpoint, why is it important to study non-human primates? It is important because we are primates, and diseases affect non-human primates in very similar ways. They also help us study our own, human evolution. What three things help us understand how primates are adapted? 1. Arboreal adaptation (tree-dwelling) 2. Dietary plasticity (flexibility) 3. Lots of parental investment in offspring What are the main traits that characterize primates as an order? Primates have: flexible skeletons, with opposable thumbs and power/precision grips; post-orbital bar or closure and versatile dentition; nails instead of claws with dermal ridges (fingerprints); binocular and color These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.vision (for jumping from tree to tree); reduced snouts and senses of smell; larger brain relative to body size Know the major taxonomic divisions of the primates. What are the main differences between strepsirhines and haplorhines? New World and Old World monkeys? Monkeys and hominoids? Suborder: Strepsirhines vs. Haplorhines; Infraorder: Platyrrhines vs. Catarrhines; Superfamily: Cercopithecoids vs. Hominoids. Strepsirhines (“wet-nose”) rely more on smell, having retained the rhinarium. Some haveclaws instead of nails on some digits, and most are nocturnal (ex: Lemurs and Lories). Haplorhines (“dry-nose”) are more orthognathic, have bigger brains, and post-orbital closure. New World monkeys (platyrrhines-“broad-nosed”) have prehensile tails and live in Central/South America. Old World monkeys (catarrhines-“hook-nosed”) have non-prehensile tales (except apes) and are found from Africa to Japan.Hominoids, compared to monkeys, have no tails, bigger body sizes, more complex behavior and brains, and extreme infant dependency and maturation. Know the different types of primate societies. How are sexual dimorphism and mating patterns related among primates? Primates are very expressive, and complex relationships and alliances are based on kinship, age/sex, and rank. Examples include: yawn=intimidation, grin=fear, and hugs/kisses=reassurance. Sexual dimorphism is based on body and canine size. In what contexts do chimpanzees (and other primates) display cooperative behavior and tool-use? Primates use “termite sticks,” stones to crack open nuts, “spears” to hunt bush babies, sticks to test water depth, stone tool-making. They have their own forms of communication such as alert calls for different threats. Why can chimpanzees (and some other primates) be considered to have culture? Culture is defined as requiring four things: innovation, transmittance, tradition, and be natural. It is behavior transmitted repeatedly through social learning, and there are 39 of these different behaviors just between populations of chimps. What sorts of “human universals” can we identify? Cognitive: sensory processing, language, basic emotions, memoryLanguage: syntax, words belonging to categories, indications of when events occurred, etc. Cultural: language, identifying kin, status rituals, inbreeding avoidance Why is the “nature/nurture” debate a false dichotomy? It does not exist, because human behavior is a product of a person’s genetic program interacting with his or her environment. What might explain the ubiquity of incest taboos among human cultures? Inbreeding avoidance is a cultural universal; Westermarck hypothesis states that children raised together develop sexual aversion. How is brain structure tied into the ability to produce and understand language? Humans perceive phonemes at a more rapid rate than other sounds because of our large brain-to-body size. Terms arboreal terrestrial power grip precision grip opposable thumb (and/or big toe) rhinarium post-orbital bar/closure dental formula tooth comb strepsirhine haplorhine catarrhine platyrrhine hominoid quadrupedal bipedal knuckle-walking brachiation suspensory monogamy (pairbonding) polygyny polyandry polygamy altruism kin selection inclusive fitness prehensile tail biological species concept homology analogyancestral trait derived trait phylogeny cladogram Pongidae (great apes) Hominidae bunodont “Y-5” morphology omnivorous frugivore folivore insectivore inbreeding depression costly signaling convergent evolution microevolution macroevolution reproductive isolating mechanisms niche