Exam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 14 - 23Lecture 14 (February 23)Memory A. The influences of memoryThe influences of memory are Level of Processing, Serial Position and chunking. Level of ProcessingShallow processing: involves structural processing (meaning we only interpret the physical qualities of something) and phonemic processing (we interpret and encode something’s sound)Deep processing: involves interpreting the meaning of something and relating it to another and elaboration rehearsal (meaningful analysis leading to improved recall)Serial Position Effect1. Primacy: we remember things we saw first better2. Recency: we remember things we saw more recently betterChunking: grouping things together and memorizing those smaller, more manageable stringsof informationB. Stage Model of MemoryThe stage model divides memory for various time frames. 1. Sensory memory (attention): Iconic (visual), echoic (auditory) environmental information is registered, large capacity for information and the duration is brief, a quarter second to 3 seconds. 2. Short-Term (working) memory (encoding and storage): new information is transferred from sensory memory, old information is retrieved from long-term memory, limited capacity for information and a temporary duration of approximately 20 seconds (can be longer with rehearsal)3. Long-Term memory (retrieval): information that has been encoded in short-term memory is stored, unlimited capacity for information and the duration is potentially permanent. There are different types of long-term memory. Explicit memory: memory with conscious recallImplicit memory: memory without conscious recallC. Content Model of Memory – Describes long-term memory1. Semantic: part of explicit (or declarative) memory, memory for facts (ex: there are 7 continents)2. Procedural: part of implicit (or nondeclarative) memory, memory for events and/or activities (ex: how to drive to school)PSY 100 1st Edition3. Episodic: part of explicit (or declarative) memory, memory for specific occasions (ex: that time you landed a 360 snowboarding)Lecture 15 (February 25) Memory Continued Meaning matters, being able to attribute a meaning to a group of letters makes it more easily memorized. (Level of processing)We remember things differently based on their position (Primacy and recency from lecture 14), our brains favor information. Recent information is closer to our sensory memory and what we see or hear first is often prioritized. When studying you should switch up the order of the information to avoid only learning and storing the first and last things in your memory. It is more difficult to remember words by syllable length or first letter than by meaning. People remember clusters more easily than individual elements (chunking) examples of this include 5 digit postal codes and telephone numbers (grouped as 3, 3 and 4). Memory test of colors and wordsWhen the color of the word and the name of the color match it is easy to recall the color of the words. When the color of the word and the name of the color are different it is much more difficult to recall the color of the words. (interference)We privilege information relevant and related to us.Information can go from our short-term memory to long-term memory and visa versa. We need to pay attention to retain sensory memories in our short-term (working) memory.Access points: ways/links into a memory such as experiences, interactions etc.If we only have one access point (haven’t used information just learned it once) it is harder to recall that information.Lecture 16 (February 27) Study Tips1. Spaced studying is better than mass practice – controls storage decay2. Making your own examples engages a deeper level of processing3. Relate information to yourself – adds access points allowing you more ways to retrieve information from your memory4. Use chunking, group concepts together5. Mix up the order you study things in- negate sound position effect6. Test yourself, practice to see if you can retrieve informationForgettingForgetting can occur at any stage of memoryEncoding failure: Information was never encoded into long-term memory, if it has not been encoded it will be forgotten. Just because we have been exposed to information does not mean that information is stored.Storage decay: memories fade away or gradually decay if unused.The decay curve is much steeper than expected.Retrieval failure: problems getting information from the long-term memory1. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: believe you know something but cannot say it2. Interference theories: memories interfering with other memories-Retroactive interference: problems remembering old info based on new info-Proactive interference: problems remembering new info based on old infoThe misinformation effect: a person’s existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information – error in retrieving memory the person is unaware ofLoftus experiment: showed people the same video but memories varied based on the questions given to the subjectsWe do not have perfect memory we are influenced by context and bias.Amnesia (retrograde or anterograde): memory lossRetrograde: inability to remember information prior to date of memory lossAnterograde: inability to make new long-term memories.Lecture 17 (March 2) Learning: change in behavior as a function of experienceConditioningClassical: learning to link two + stimuli and anticipate eventsOperant: associating actions with consequence –strengthened by positive reinforcement or diminished by punishmentLearning: Classical ConditioningIvan Pavlov: Russian psychologist known for his work in classical conditioningUnconditioned stimulus (US) = stimulus that unconditionally (naturally or automatically) triggers a URNeutral stimulus (NS) = elicits no response prior to conditioningUnconditioned response (UR) = naturally occurring, unlearned response to a USConditional stimulus (CS) = after association with a US comes to trigger a CRConditioned response (CR) = a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulusExtinction: when CS is no longer paired with the US, the CR is no longer elicitedSpontaneous recovery: pairing randomly occurs after extinction of a conditioned response (reappears)Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus can elicit similar responses (more than one potential CS)Stimulus discrimination: the ability to differentiate between potential conditional