Psych 111 Exam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 8 - 15- Learning: any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.- Principles that explain learning in animals explain human learning too.- Conditioning: Learning connections between events that occur in an organism’s environment. Classical Conditioning- Phobia: irrational fears of specific objects or situations. - Classical conditioning: type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.- Pavlov conditioning.Pavlov’s Demonstration: “Psychic Reflexes”- Neutral stimulus: did not originally produce the response of salivation. However, Pavlov changed that by pairing the tone with a stimulus. Terminology and Procedures- Unconditioned association: unconditioned stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.- Unconditioned response, an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. - Conditioned stimulus: previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.- Conditioned response: a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. - “Psychic reflex” conditioned reflex. - Classically conditioned responses = elicited (drawn forth) b/c most or them are relatively automatic. - Trial in classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.Classical Conditioning in Everyday LifeConditioned Fear and Anxiety- Classical conditioning: role in shaping emotional responses (fears). Other Conditioned Emotional Responses- SmellConditioning and Physiological Responses- Immunosuppression: decrease in the production of antibodies. - Influence sexual arousal, increased sperm release Evaluative Conditioning of Attitudes- Evaluative conditioning: changes in liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. Acquisition of likes and dislikesTypically, neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimuli that trigger positive reactions so thatneutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits similar positive reactions. - Advertising: pair product with attractive people, surroundings. Basic Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisition: Forming New Responses- Acquisition: initial stage of learning something. Depends on stimulus contiguity, or the occurrence of stimuli together in time and spaceExtinction: Weakening Conditioned Responses- Extinction: gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned response tendency.Occurs in classical conditioning when conditioned stimulus is consistently presented alone, without unconditioned stimulus. Depends on conditioned bond strength.Spontaneous Recovery: Resurrecting Responses- Reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. - Renewal effect: if a response is extinguished in a different environment than where it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.Extinction suppresses a conditioned response rather than erasing a learned association. Does not appear to lead to unlearning. Stimulus Generalization and the Case of Little Albert- Stimulus Generalization: when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in same way to new stimuli that are similar to original stimulus. - Watson: Little Albert.- The more similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the generalization. - Generalization gradients. Can contribute to panic disorder, involves recurrent, overwhelming anxiety attacks that occur suddenly and unexpectedly. Stimulus Discrimination- When an organism that has learned response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. - Adaptive: organisms gradually learn to discriminate between an original CS and similar stimuli if they have adequate experience with both. - The less similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the likelihood and ease of discrimination. If a new stimulus is quite similar to the original CS, discrimination will be relatively hard to learn. - When an organism learns a discrimination, the generalization gradient gradually narrows around the original CS, which means that the organism is generalizing to a smaller and smaller range of similar stimuli. Higher-Order Conditioning- Higher-order conditioning: a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.Does not depend on presence of a genuine, natural US. An already established CS works. Builds on already established conditioned responses.Ex: Police car and driverOperant Conditioning - Skinner: Operant conditioning: form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.- Classical conditioning regulated reflexive, involuntary responses, whereas operant conditioning governed voluntary responses. Skinner’s Demonstration: It’s All a Matter of Consequences- Organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences. - Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response. - Defined as after the fact in terms of its effect on behavior (strengthening response). Terminology and Procedures- Operant chamber, “Skinner’s box.” Small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.- Since operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited. To emit means to send forth.- Skinner box permits experimenter to control reinforcement contingencies that are in effect for the animal. - Reinforcement contingencies: circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. Experimenter manipulates whether positive consequences occur when the animal makes designated response.- Key dependent variable in most research on operant conditioning is subjects’ response rate over time. - Cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time. - Graph: x= time, y=accumulation of responses. - Primary reinforcers: events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy