Chapter 9- How is genetics related to heredity? Genetics= info for why its being inherited; heredity-transmisson of characterisrics from one generation to the next genetics-scientific study of hereidity- Why did mendel study pea plants? Easy to grow, distinguishable varities, easily pollinated and fertilized, self-pollinated & easily controls fertilization- Whats the difference between a character & a trait ? character=item(eye color) trait=expression(green eyes)- Difference betwwen pubred & hybrid ? Purbred= varities of each variant ; offspring resemble parents hybrid= offspring of two different purbred varities- Monohybrid cross? Comparison between one character 2:1:1 (dihybrid 9:3:3:1)- Mendels 4 hypothesis’ : #1 alleles are alt. versions of genes #2 alleles from each parent either homozygous(same alleles) or hetero.(diff. alleles) #3 if 2 alleles of an inherited pair diff they can be either recessive or dominant #4 law of segregation(allels separate during gamete formation- Phenotype….Genotype? pheno= physical appearance Geno= genetic makeup- Gene locus? Location on a chromosome (loci)- Are dominant traits always controlled by dominant alleles? Dominant traits not always more present; wild traits= seen most often in nature, but not always dominant- Test cross? Mating of a dominant phenotype with an unknown genotype( homozygous recessive)- Family pedigree? Shows history of a trait in a familyRecessive disorders: albinism, sickle cell, cystic fibrosis,tay sachs disease, pkuDominant: anchondroplasia(dwarfism), hunnington’s disease, alzhimer’s, hypocholestrima- Carrier= has but dosent show the gene- Why doesn’t carrier concept apply to dominant gentic disorders? Only one gene is neede for a trait to be expressed i.e achnodroplpasia(homo gene is dominant. Present only in heter), huntington’s diease(doesn’t affect reproduction)- Incomplete dominance? Both genes expressed with a blended outcome (hypocholeserolemia HH is normal & hh 5x blood cholesterol , Hh mild disease- Multiple alleles? More than two alleles for a character - Codominance? Both info both expresses independently and completely- Pleitropy? One gene influences more than one character or phenol( cystic fibrosis , sickle cell)- Polygenic inheritance? I character, multiple alleles ( affected by genes and environment, additiveaffect on single character) - Environment in gene expression? Multifactorial health disorders ( heart disease, diabetes,cancer,alcoholism,schiz…..affected by lifestyle; diet, exercise levels, drugs)- Chromosome theory inheritance: genes= diff. location on chromosome- Somatic chromosome: non-sex chromosome, determines everything, but gender(22)Chapter 10-Nucleotide? Sugar& phosphates, nitrogen-containing bases -Two types of nucleic acids? Deoxyribonucleic acid & ribonucleic acid-How do nucleotides form DNA& RNA ? sugar of one nucleotide link to the phosphate of next= alternating sugars& phosphates form the backbone-how is dna replicated? Helicase unzips dna, matched with mRNA, codons and anticodons bond, tRNA transfers amino acids to ribosome = polypeptide protein(end Result) -function of DNA? Code for proteins and genes-why is RNA needed? DNA remains protected in eukaryotic nucleus, mRNA provides nucleotide sequence for translation of a particular protein that is needed-how is mRNA related to genetic code? Translates into genetic code-genetic code? Translation-dna to rna (nucleic sepuence to amino acid sequence) nucleotide bases (3)=codons- start codon= AUG end codons=UAA UAG UGA-mutations- any change in the sequence of dna how they happen? Spontaneous, physical mutagens(gamma rays, ultra violet light, x rays), chemical mutangens (cigs, wood burning, diesel exhaust, charboiled foods)-potential consequneces of mutations? Cancer, genetic diseases&birth defects, new allelesChapter 13 What is modern synthesis? Fusion of genes and evoulutionary biologyWhat is the smallest unit of evolution? Population What is gene pool? The total collection of alleles in a population at any time ……relative frequency changing over time=evolution, microevolution changes within a populationWhat is allele frequency? Relative proportion of one allele type compares to all alleles for that trait in a pop.What do p and q aymbolize in gene pools? P=the relative frequency of the dominant allele q=the frequency of he recessive allele p+q=1 How are genotype frequencies determined from allele frequencies? hardy-weinberg formula p(squared)+2pq+q(squared)=1 used to calculate the percentage of human population that carries the allele for particular inherited diseaseHow can you tell a population is evolving? Through gene flow genetic drift and natural selection gene flow- genetic exchange with another population, can cause gain or loss of alleles, reduces genetic differences in pop.Genetic drift- a change in allele frequency of a small populationWhat is bottleneck effect? Drastic reduction in population sizeFounders effect? Small population leaves large population in isolation leads to imbedding and causes disorders in human populationEffect of natural selection on characters with wide range of phenotype? Range between twp extremes i.e. coat color, skin color and birth weightOutcomes of natural section= directional selection- selection for one extreme of phenotype, disruptive selection- selection for both phenotypic extremes, stabilizing selection- selections for intermediate phenotypeSexual selection? Individuals with certain traits are more likely to to obtain mates i.e. males with bright colors being chosen by female birdsDoes development to resistance t odrugs show evoultuion? Shoes organisims adaption to change over timeHow does evolution inform us of the world around us today? Understanding of field of biology i.e. medicine, agriculture etc.Darwin 3 key observations: rich diversty, patterns of similarities, and adaptation (morphological(physical), behavioral, or chemical) What was differnet about darwins proposed hypothesis? Made testable predictions Darwins hypothesis and theory- descent with modification, natural selection, and evolutionary adaptationHow is natural selection realted to evoultoin? Natural selection leads