BIOL 3324 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide o Gray vs. White Mattero Gray: consists of unmyelinated cells bodies, dendrities, and axon terminalso White: consists of myelinated axons with very few cell bodieso There are four major features that protect the CNS from injuryo The meninges o Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, Pia Matero Cerebral Spinal Fluid o Formed primarily by choroid plexuses o The Blood-brain barrier o Neurons are protected from harmful substances in the blood because brain capillaries are not leaky. o Special nutritional requirements of neural tissueo Brain used ~15% of blood pumped by the heart to get the oxygen gas it needso Brain uses ~50% of the body’s glucose consumptiono The Spinal Cordo Four regions which correspond to the vertebrae Cervical (8), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5)o The Spinal Nerves o Dorsal root: carries sensory (afferent) information to the CNSo Ventral root: carries motor (efferent) information to the muscles and glandso Gray matter of the spinal cord: o Centrally located, butterfly shaped o White matter of the spinal cord: o Functionally organized into tractso Bundles of nerve fivers with simple function o Spinal Reflexes o Very basic o Self contained integration center o The Brainstem o Oldest and most primitive part of the brain o Consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain o The Cranial Nerves o These nerves supply head and neck with motor and sensory fiberso KNOW: Vagus nerve (X): responsible for innervating the thoracic and abdominal cavities o Reticular formationo Nuclei (diffuse collections of nerve cell bodies) that govern many of the basic processes of lifeo The Cerebellum o Second largest structure in the brain These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.o The diencephalon o “between-brain” lies between the stem and the cerebrumo Consists of 3 structures: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus o The Cerebrum o Largest portion of the human brain o Cerebral Lateralization o The language and verbal skills tend to be concentrated on the left side of the brain where as the spatial skills concentrated on the right side. o Functional Areas of the cerebral cortexo Sensory Areaso Motor Areao Association Areaso Sensory Integration and Processing o Somesthetic sensations: sensations from the surface of the body: touch, pressure, temperature, pain o Proprioception: awareness of body position o “Lower brain function” is known as simple awareness that is detected by the thalamus o “Higher brain function” is for subconscious walking by the cerebellum and cerebral cortex o Know the five areas where sensory information is processedo Perceptiono Conscious awareness of surroundings derived from interpretation of sensory inputo Motor Controlo Motor systems govern CNS outputo Voluntary muscle control Frontal lobeo Consciousnesso Four states of consciousness Maximum alterness Wakefulness Sleep Comao Sleep-Wake o Sleep Two types: Slow wave sleep, Paradoxical sleep (REM sleep) o Due to the cyclic interplay of three different neural systems 1. An arousal system-part of the reticular activating system 2. Slow-wave sleep center- hypothalamus containing sleep ON neurons Paradoxical sleep center- brainstem containing REM sleep ON neurons o Why do we sleep?o Emotionso Subjective emotional feelings and moods and the associated overall physical responses o Motivationso Direct behavior towards a specific goalo Basic behavioral patterns-survival behaviorso Individual survival o Sociosexual behavioro Two levels Simple: (ex: smile) Complex (ex: fear)o Learning and Memoryo Learning: acquisition of knowledge or skills as a consequence of experience, instruction or both o Memory: storage of acquired knowledge for later recall Hippocampus: vital role in short term memory by integrating various related stimuli Multiple levels of storage How does memory work? o Cortical Control of Languageo Usually located on the left side of the brain o Broca’s area o Wernicke’s area o Receptors o Located at the peripheral end of an afferent neuron that responds to a stimuli o Types of Receptorso Receptor signals o Receptive fieldso Distinguishing modalitieso Modalityo Locationo Intensity and Duration o Adaptation o Two types of receptors Tonic Phasic o Somatosenory pathwayso Discrete chains of neurons that synaptically interconnect and at each level get processedwith greater sophistication o Toucho Receptors o Nociceptors o Pain o Analgesia o Smello Olfactor mucose o Olfactory bulb o Characteristics of an odoro Vomeronasal organ o Tasteo Five primary tastes o Taste signalso Hearing o The 3 parts of the ear External Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear-The Cochlea- Sound waves in the inner ear o Discriminating sounds o Auditory pathways to the cortexo Deafness o Equilibrium is regulated by the vestibular apparatus o Semicircular Canalso Otolith Organs o The Eyeo The Iris o Light Photoreceptor cells Color vision Light must pass through several retinal layers before reaching the photoreceptoro Visual Transduction: the playerso Photopigment o Darkness vs. Light o Initiation of an action potential in the visual pathway o Termination of the light response o Visual Processing o Ganglion cello Nerves o The efferent division of the PNS Two branches: Autonomic system, Somatic system o Autonomic system innervates visceral organs o Two systems or subdivisions: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic branches - Dominance - Advantages of two systems - Receptorso The Adrenal medulla o Located superior to the kidney Two parts: Cortex, Medulla o The Somatic nervous system o It is under voluntary control but not necessarily conscious control Stereotypical movements Posture Balance o The Neuromuscular junctiono The motor-end plate o Axon terminal enlarges into a terminal button o Muscle Typeso Skeletal muscle Structure and what it does o Cardiac muscleo Smooth muscleo Myofibril o Thick filamentso Thin filaments Three components o Light and dark bands o Titin and Nebulin o Crossbridges o Troponin o Contractiono The Powerstrokeo Relaxation o Muscle metabolism (ATP is essential) o Creatine Phosphate o Oxidative phosphorylation o Glycolysis o Fatigue (Peripheral vs. Central)o Muscle Mechanics o Two primary types of contractiono Smooth Muscles o Multiunit o Single unit o Myogenic Activity o
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