TerminologyMonolingualBilingual (or Multilingual)BidialectalNative/Non-native SpeakerEnglish Language Learner (ELL)English as a Second Language (ESL)Dual Language Learners (DLL)Social ContextMajority LanguageMinority LanguageHeritage LanguageBeing BilingualFluent speakerDominant languageMonolingualBalanced bilingual—positive cognitive consequencesUnbalanced bilingual—neutral cognitivelySemi-lingualism—negative cognitive consequencesLittle/no English Use; Fluent English use inEnglish Primarily from many settings, includingEnvironment (ie. TV) academic and social----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fluent French use in Little/no French use;many setting, including French primarily fromAcademic and social environment (ie. TV)Code SwitchingCode SwitchingMoving between social registersMixing two or more languages or dialectsCan serve a variety of purposesFill lexical gapsReflect social normsFlags group membershipIs grammatically, socially, and culturally constrainedReflects proficiency (not deficiencies)Intra-utterance code switchingIs grammatically constrainedHappens at syntactic boundariesHappens at all levels of languageWords—estamos como marido y woman (we are like man and..)Phrase—I’m going with her a la esguina (…to the corner)Clauses—you know how to swim but no te tappa (…it won’t be over your head)Pragmatics—donne moi le cheval; le cheval : the horse! (give me the horse, the horse…)Timing of ExposureSimultaneous BilingualsSequential BilingualsFirst Language (L1)Second Language (L2)Early sequential bilingual (before age 5)Late sequential bilingual (after 13-14)Acquisition Processes in Simultaneous BilingualsLike monolinguals, rate and level of attainment depends on amount and quality of inputMay attain most language milestones slightly later than monolingualsShow similar proficiency levels if both languages are accounted for……but may appear weak if only one language is assessedconceptual vocabularymay show some cross-language interference, but this often resolvesStages of Sequential Language Acquisition (children)1. Home Language Use2. Silent Periodaccumulate receptive knowledge of L2May last 6 months – 1 year3. Telegraphic & Formulaic UseEngage in social interactionsElicit more L2 inputUse of simple schemas4. Productive language useInterlanguageFluent language useAdditive vs. Subtractive BilingualismSubtractive BilingualismLearning an L2 without sufficient continued exposure to an L1 can lead to language loss in the L1Additive BilingualismMust be supported by the community and the educational systemRequires continued exposure to both languagesSequential Language Acquisition (Post-puberty)Language of InstructionL1-Traditional/AudiolingualL2-Immersion/Submersion/DirectGoal of InstructionConversation first –Direct/AudiolingualWritten first—traditionalBoth—Immersion/SubmersionWhat makes a good (second) language learner?Phonetic coding abilityGrammatical sensitivityRote-learning abilityInductive learning abilityRecast as size, speed, efficiency of working memory?MotivationAcculturationPeer group identificationCongruent culturesTemperamentExtrovertHigh self-esteemAssertivenessLow anxietyPractice opportunitiesHigh input generators/low input generatorsHow is language stored in the brain?Generally agreed that there is a common lexical store in simultaneous and early sequential bilingualscross language primingEvidence is less clear for late sequential bilinguals and for syntaxAll speakers need to suppress interference from the non-target languageSemantic PrimingWing – Director (no effect)Wing – Pig (slower)Wing – Swan (faster)This works cross-linguistically too!*It’s even faster when the words are cognatesRepetition PrimingDoes not rely on semantic knowledgeShows similar cross-linguistic effects as semantic primingTranslation?Forward Translation (L1L2)Conceptual MediationBackward Translation (L2L1)Word AssociationPicture word interference StudiesInterference vs. facilitation across languagesName the picture (don’t read the word)Eye Tracking StudiesInterference vs. facilitation across languagesHear a word and pick the picture that was namedBenefits of being bilingualImproved Metalinguistic SkillsImproved Executive FunctionReduced bias for decision makingIntelligence?The aging brainFundamental properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary relationsrelationship between phonological form of a word and its meaning is largely arbitraryLanguage processing is incrementalspoken language unfolds over time (~150 -200 word /minute) making many words and phrases ambiguousLanguage use is flexible and creativespeakers rhetorically or poetically select particular details to represent for a specific listener on a particular occasionLanguage use is multi-modalmultiple, rich sources of info from visual world, gaze, gesture are integrated with language.Memory and languageVideoIntact rate of learning for the acquisition and successful use of referential labels in hippocampal amnesia in a collaborative referencing paradigmHe rapidly learned wordsHow well he didsame rate of learningHow do I know that I know that you knowHippocampal amnesia disrupts the flexible and creative use of languageDefinite referenceThe windmill vs a windmillSignals to listener that speaker believes referent is uniquely identifiable in the joint representation of the local context or shared communicative historyAmnesia = 56%Comparison = 90%Amnesic patients had described the tangrams multiple times and were using concise labels, even after 24 trials the patients were still using indefinite reference (ie. A windmill)Declarative memory plays a role in flexibly tailoring utterances for specific communication partners to reflect joint knowledgeRole of declarative memory in language beyond word learning by linking a deficit in declarative memory to disruptions in referential processes (ie. Marking noun phrases as definite or indefinite)Creative use of languageCreativity requires rapid combination and recmoinbination of existing mental representations to create novel ideas and way s of thinkingLinguistic creativity as verbal playTelling funny stories or jokes, playing with sounds and meanings of words, making puns, overt teasing or other or self-deprecating humor, use of marked or playful voices of registers, singing or song-like intonation, and use of sound effectsCoded