Psyc 332 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 3Lecture 1 (September 7) Logic: reasoning a priori. “I think therefore I am” – Rene Descartes. Logic can be illogical.  Intuition: One of the 4 ways of knowing. For example, opposites attract, or birds of a feather flock together.  Authority: Taking someone else’s word for it. Experts say. Sometimes consensus is taken as authority “everyone knows”.  Observation: Examples include fracking and drinking water. Observation is the method of science. Observation is valued above all others.  Determinism: The world obeys systematic, ordered patterns. Cause and effect relationships that are relatively consistent.  Theories: set of ideas of general rules that vary under conditions Hypotheses: specific prediction of outcome given set up of specific conditions Empiricism: Observation is to be trusted over other sources of knowledge. Data talks, the rest walks.  Parsimony: The simplest explanation is usually the correct one. As few assumptions as possible. Occam’s razor: “shave off” the fatty theories.  Testability:  Validation: finding evidence that supports the hypothesis Falsifiability: conduct studies that have potential to disprove the hypothesis Replication: the results can be achieved repeatedly in similar studies Positive Test Bias/Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out information that verifies your theory (validation), and not seek information that falsifies your theory (falsification). Not intentional.  APA Ethical Principles:  Respect for persons/Autonomy Beneficence Justice Trust Integrity Principle 1: Respect for Persons: Do subjects know what they are getting themselves into, and do they know they don’t have to?  Informed Consent: Information, Comprehension, Volunteer freely, terminate anytime Principle 2: Beneficence: Do the benefits outweigh the costs? Risks should be reduced to only those necessary When risks high, must be justified Brutal treatment is never justified Vulnerable populations should be protected  Principle 3: Justice Selection process is fair Benefits of research to those who participated Use science for good, not evil! Principle 4: Relationship of Trust Confidentiality Subjects to leave in the same psychological state as when they arrived Debriefing Professional Conduct Principle 5: Scientific Integrity For research must have the capacity to foster scientific knowledge Poor science can lead to incorrect conclusions, which may be misleading or damaging to society.  Fabrication: Obfuscation, fabrication, falsification, bare assertions Plagiarism: source plagiarism, citation plagiarism, self-plagiarism, ghost-writing, undue authorshipLecture 2 Independent Variable: the theoretical construct that we predict has impact on the thoughts/behaviors on people. Manipulated by experimenter. Cause (or “predictor”) variable. Minimum of 2 levels, usually presence/absence of quality expected to lead to change (e.g new batteries/old batteries) Dependent Variable: the phenomenon that we attempt to influence with our experiments. Measured by experimenter. Effect or observation variable. “Uncontrolled” in the strict sense, free to vary. IV  DV (The DV depends on the IV) Operational Definition: the specific meaning of a variable in terms of the actual measures, or “operation”, being used. Looks at specific, narrow, slice of the conceptual variable. Need to create concrete definitions of conceptual/theoretical variables to make testable hypothesis A good operational definition should be able to stand in for other operational definitions of that conceptual variable But operational definition can leave out important aspects of conceptual variable, so should try to replicate with other operational definitions.  Conceptual Variable: abstract concepts described as how the experimenter sees or understands them.  Manipulation Check: verifies that experimenter has successfully manipulated the independent variable as intended. What to do? Omit these people from study Re-code independent variable levels to match the actual manipulation Maintain as is Moderator: prohibits or inhibits the effect of the IV on the DV Mediator: go between causal step between the DV and the IV Nominal Scale:  Categorical variable Have no numerical value. Cannot be compared mathematically E.g gender, nationality Ordinal Scale:  Responses are rank ordered But distances between ranks may not be equivalent E.g preferences for schools Internal Scales: Distances between numbers are equal However, there is no real zero point Therefore different values cannot be compared as ratios E.g temperature scale Ratio Scales:  Like interval scales, but have a true zero point Values can be compared as ratios E.g weight, distance, time Kinds of Dependent Variables Verbal Measures Scales: multiple items, get at some attitudes Interview: messier, less control. Can be coded for content. Content Analysis Behavioroid Measures  Measures of intention to behave some way in the future e.g “I will start writing my paper next week” could be a behavioroid measure of conscientiousness, motivation Unobtrusive Measures Covert and indirect measure Low reactivity by subjects E.g sales of hand sanitizer during swine flu scare  Physiological Measures  Measures of internal physical states, not directly under subjects control  Need to have understanding of what the physiological measures mean  Polygraph/Lie Detector: measures heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, galvanic skin response, and is a measure of “arousal” Facial EMG: measures electrical impulses involved in emotional expression e.g anger, disgust,happiness PET Scan: Radioactive glucose injected into bloodstream; metabolic rate observed with CT Scan fMRI: neutrons use up oxygen when firing; blood is diagmagnetic when oxygenated, paramagnetic when deoxygenated Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Self-Cognition: a) Think about their own personality traits, current mental states, and physical attributesb) Viewed the face of an unfamiliar individual and were instructed to ‘‘imagine for a momentthat you are this person, walking through the world in their shoes and seeing the world through their eyes” vs. “what this person might