PSYCH 101 1st Edition Lecture 15 Outline of Last Lecture I. Skinner’s ExperimentsA. Operant ChamberII. Operant ConditioningA. Shaping BehaviorB. Types of Reinforcers1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement2. Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers3. Immediate and Delayed ReinforcersC. Reinforcement Schedules1. Continuous Reinforcement2. Partial Reinforcement-Types of Partial Reinforcement1. Fixed Ratio2. Variable Ratio3. Fixed Interval4. Variable IntervalOutline of Current Lecture I. Punishment- Positive Punishment- Negative PunishmentThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.II. Biology Cognition and LearningA. Role of Biology1. Classical Conditioning2. Operant ConditioningB. Role of Cognitive Processes1. In Classical Conditioning2. In Operant Conditioning3. Latent LearningIII. Learning, Rewards, and MotivationA. Intrinsic MotivationB. Extrinsic MotivationIV. Learning by Observation- Observational Learning- Modeling- Mirror NeuronsA. Bandura’s ExperimentsB. Applications of observational learning1. Positive Observational Learning2. Negative Observational LearningCurrent LectureI. Punishment:Any event that decreases or weakens the behavior it follows.- Positive Punishment: administers an aversive stimulus (i.e. parking ticket, spanking)- Negative Punishment: withdraws a desirable stimulus (revoked driver’s license, timeout from a privilege) II. Biology, Cognition, and LearningA. Role of Biology1. Classical Conditioning- It is easier to learn associations that make sense for survival.- Food aversions can be acquired even if the Unconditioned Response (nausea) does NOT immediately follow the neutral stimulus. When acquiring food aversions during pregnancy or illness, the body associates nausea with whatever food was eaten.2. Operant Conditioning- Operant conditioning encounters biological tendencies and limits that are difficult to override. i.e. Can a pigeon be trained to dive underwater? No, but a dolphin can.B. Role of Cognitive Processes1. In Classical Conditioning- Conditioned responses can alter attitudes, even when we know the change is caused by conditioning. However, knowing that our reactions are caused by condition gives us the option of mentally breaking the association. - When the dog salivates at the bell, it may be due to cognition (learning to predict, even expect, the food).2. In Operant Conditioning- Expectation as a cognitive skill is even more evident in the ability of humans to respond to delayed reinforcers such as a paycheck. Humans can set behavior goals for self and others, and plan their own reinforcers. - In fixed-interval reinforcement, animals do more target behaviors/responses around the time that the reward is more likely, as if expecting the reward.3. Latent Learning:Refers to skills or knowledge gained from experience, but not apparent in behavior until rewards are given.- Rats appear to form cognitive maps. They can learn a maze just by wandering, with no cheese to reinforce their learning (learning just to learn in a sense). - Evidence of these cognitive maps is revealed once the cheese is placed somewhere in the maze. After only a few trials, these rats quickly catch up in maze-solving to rats who were rewarded with cheese all along.III. Learning, Rewards, and MotivationA. Intrinsic Motivation: refers to the desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake. The reward is internalized as a feeling of satisfaction.B. Extrinsic Motivation: refers to doing a behavior to receive rewards from others.- Intrinsic Motivation can sometimes be reduced by external rewards, and can be prevented by using continuous reinforcement. - One principle for maintaining behavior is to use as few rewards as possible, and fade them out over time. IV. Learning by Observation- Observational Learning: Learning by observing others- Modeling: Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior- Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons the fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. This may enable imitation, language, learning, and empathy. A. Bandura’s Experiments- Bandura’s Bobo doll study indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishmentsB. Applications of Observational Learning1. Positive Observational Learning- Fortunately prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.2. Negative Observational Learning-Children who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased