Bedrock presumptions:POLI 105 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 – 11Review:- The Five goalso Define = not all things can be easily defined, i.e. democracy, power, legitimacy o Describe = we can simply describe what we know, but must be able to provide how we know thiso Explain = we can come up with arguments based on observations and case comparison, based on these arguments, we can also find causationo Predict = if we believe our explanations are correct then we can predict outcomes, however, prediction does not work so well in the poli sci world b/c it is so complexo Prescribe = basically asking “what should we do with regard to this issue?”- The challenge = Ontology and Epistemology- Scientific Method and Falsification= some problems - Some the Great Chain of Being! (problem of deduction based on ontology)1. Galileo and Copernicus- observations (inductions) don’t match deductive assumptions 2. Bacion and the need for experimentation 3. Movement to theory of man as rational creature, capable of shaping his own destiny4. Relationship of man and government- i Hobbes and Locke = Social Contract and Liberalism 5. But wait- Hume tells us- empirical reality may not match the deductions of a social contract Types of Questions:1. “what ought to be”a. Normative question that expresses a value judgmentb. Should be based on good analysis, but sometimes policy is shaped by other political factorsc. This in turn causes political controversy2. “what is”a. Empirical question that expresses empirical analysisb. Ideal is to obtain a value neutral understanding of phenomenonc. Centered on facts, seek to discover, describe and explain facts and factual relationsThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Conclusions- Let your epistemology shape your ontology and avoid having your ontology shape your epistemology. Concepts:- How do we define the terms we use?- Concepts are the building blocks of science- They must be clear and understood- Three issues to deal with: o How do Concepts Travel?  Asking whether a concept can be utilized in other cases or to create other generalizationso What is the problem of “concept stretching”? Abusing a concept or redefined a concept i.e. danger of using the concept of terrorism too broadlyo What is the proper level of abstraction? Level of abstraction determines, to some extent, our ability to make casual arguments as well as capacity to engage in more deterministic or probabilistic analysis Shapes how we understand the interaction of variables and it hinges on language Institutions:- Institutions play a major role in comparative politics, yet there is no one, set definition of what exactly an institution is- Can be structures of govt like executives, parliaments etc.- Can also be rule systems like the criminal justice system- Can have hard material presence like the World Bank- Can also be set of ideas and values that bind us- Two types of institutions:o Formal = include laws, regulations, and rules, which are underpinned by regulatory pillaro Informal = norms, cultures, and ethics, which are supported by the normative and cognitive pillarsObservation and Experimentation: - Poli sci emphasizes observation rather than experimentation- Field research, though rarely perfect, is used often- Much of comparative politics us based on observational study b/c it is difficult to construct experimentsObservations and Comparative Case Study Approach:- B/c we seek to explain political phenomenon, we develops theories about particular cases- More often our theories seek to identify generalizations, trends and explanations that can cross casesIssue of Causation:- Correlation DOES NOT equal causation- A correlation is an association, a relationship that suggest that variables change togethero Positive correlation = variables correlate in the same directiono Negative correlation = variables are inversely correlated- Types of causations:o Causal inferenceso Causal sequences (causal chains)o Causal mechanismsWhat’s an N? - N = number of observations- Single case = single N- Small N means a small number of cases and a large N means a large number of case studiesCase Study Approach:- Single case studies can:o Provide contextual descriptionso Help develop new classificationso Help us generate new hypotheseso Confirm or infirm theorieso Explain deviant cases through cross national comparisonsSmall N cases:- Often rely on more deductive methods - Utilize fewer data points on more unique phenomena - Trade off on “thicker” description in lieu of more data Large N cases:- Often rely on inductive approaches- Utilize many data points to seek out patterns- Structure is in numbers, but often lack in depth - Advantages:o Allows for stronger inferences and theory building o Often shows high degrees of certainty if correlations happeno Can also help us identify “deviant” cases or outliers that might help explain why phenomena occur- Drawbacks:o Trade-off between richness of analysis and broadness of the scope of studyo Detail of qualitative study is losto Large N studies can be difficulto Concepts might not be easy to measure through mathSpurious Causation:- When two variables seems to appear linked in a cause-and-effect relationship but, in fact, there is no causal linkage whatsoever- When they are linked indirectly by some other causative variable or variablesMost Similar Systems Design/Mill’s Method of Difference:- Consists in comparing very similar cases which only differ in the dependent variable, on the assumption that this would make it easier to find those independent variables which explain the presence/absence of the dependent variable- Helpful because it keeps many confusing and irrelevant variables in the research constant Most Different Systems Design/Mill’s Method of Agreement:- Consists in comparing very different cases, all of which however have in common the same dependent variable, so that any other circumstance which is present in all the cases can be regarded as the independent variablePower:- Ability to effect outcomes- Can be both potential and kinetic (physics)o Could exist as the ability to deliver an event or in the delivery of an event- True question is whether power really is zero-sum- Power varies within a society and is not equally divided but subject to the types of resources and abilities