CHEM 102 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 2 - 11Lecture 2 (1/28)Organic chemistry: Study of hydrocarbons (only carbon and hydrogen atoms) and their various derivatives. Inorganic chemistry: Study of all substances other than hydrocarbons and their derivatives.Hydrocarbon: Compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbon derivative: Compound that contains carbon and hydrogen and one or more additional elements. Saturated hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon with all carbon– carbon bonds single bonds. Unsaturated hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon with one or more carbon–carbon multiple bonds (double bonds, triple bonds, or both).Alkanes: Open chain (straight or branched) compounds of carbon and hydrogen. • All bonds are single bonds. • General formula: CnH2n+2 Expanded Structural Formula: A two-dimensional structural representation that depicts the bonding of all atoms in a molecule. • Ex: (Propane)Condensed Structural Formula: Structural arrangements of different groupings (a central atom connected with other atoms) in a molecule.• Ex: CH3 – CH2 – CH3 (Propane)Isomers: Compounds having same molecular formula, but different structural arrangements (different connectivity of atoms) are called Isomers, and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.Continuous-chain alkane: Carbon atoms are connected in a continuous non-branching chain. Branched-chain alkane: one or more branches (of carbon atoms) are attached to a continuous chain.Constitutional Isomers: isomers that differ in connectivity of atoms.Lecture 3 (1/30)Conformation: The specific three dimensional spatial arrangement of atoms in an organic molecule at a given instant• Conformational structures result from C-C single bond rotation - no breaking of bonds takes place. • Different structural isomers result from different connectivity of atoms - breaking and ma king of bonds in the same molecule. IUPAC Rules for Naming Branched-Chain AlkanesRule 1: Identify the longest continuous carbon chain and name that chain as the parent Rule 2: Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain in such a way so that to give the lowest possible number for a substituent (alkyl group). Rule 3: If only one substituent present, name and locate it by number; then, prefix the number and name to that of the parent carbon chain. Rule 4: If two or more of the same kind of alkyl group are present in a molecule, indicate the number with a Greek numerical prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and so forth). In addition, a number specifying the location of each identical group must be included. These position numbers, separated by commas, precede the numerical prefix. Numbers are separated from words by hyphens.IUPAC Rules for Naming Branched-Chain AlkanesRule 5: When two kinds of alkyl groups are present on the same carbon chain, number each group separately, and list the names of the alkyl groups in alphabetical order. Rule 6: Follow IUPAC punctuation rules: • 1. Separate numbers from each other by commas. • 2. Separate numbers from letters by hyphens. • 3. Do not add a hyphen or a space between the lastnamed substituent and the name of the parent alkane.C-atom can be classified as follows: – Primary: If bonded to only one C- atom (1°)– Secondary: If bonded to 2 other C-atoms (2°)– Tertiary: If bonded to 3 other C- atoms (3°)– Quaternary: If bonded to 4 other C- atoms (4°)Continuous chain alkyl groups: The simplest type of alkyl group with continuous chain of carbonatoms. Branched-chain alkyl groups: Alkyl groups are added to the continuous parent chain of carbon atoms (Alkanes with branched-chain alkyl groups).IUPAC naming of branched alkyl groups – A hyphen always follows the designations secondary and tertiary but no hyphen is used with prefix iso. – Examples: secondary-butyl tertiary-butyl isobutylIUPAC rules in naming branched chain alkyl groupsRule 1: The longest continuous carbon chain that begins at the point of attachment of the alkyl group becomes the base name. Rule 2: The base chain is numbered at the point of attachment. Rule 3: Substituents on the base chain are listed in alphabetical order, using numerical prefixes when necessary, and substituent locations are designated using numbers.Cycloalkanes: are alkanes that contain a ring of three or more carbons. • General Formula of Cycloalkane: CnH2nLecture 4 (2/04)IUPAC for Cycloalkanes• Count the number of carbons in the ring, and name the parent cyclic chain (just like an alkane). • Add the prefix cyclo to the IUPAC name of the unbranched alkane, e.g., Cyclopentane • Name any alkyl groups on the ring in the usual way • Numbering conventions used in locating substituents on the ringStereoisomers: have the same molecular and structural formulas but different orientations of atoms in space. – Several forms of stereoisomerism exist.Cis–trans isomers: have the same molecular and structural formulas but different spatial orientations of atoms due to the restricted rotation about bonds. Cis- is a prefix that means “on the same side.”Trans- : is a prefix that means “across from.”Solubility: Follows the rule ‘like dissolves like’Density: Lighter than waterThe boiling points increase with an increase in the number of carbon atom in chain length or ringsizeCombustion: The final products of any complete combustion of hydrocarbons are: – Carbon dioxide and Water (vapor) – CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O + EnergyHalogenation: Substitution of one or more H-atoms of hydrocarbons by halogen atoms (substitution reaction of alkanes)Halogenated Alkanes: Derivatives alkanes in which one or more hydrogen atoms are substituted by halogen atoms. Halogenated cycloalkanes: Cycloalkane derivatives in which one or more hydrogen atoms are substituted by halogen atoms • These derivatives are named as: – Haloalkanes or Halocycloalkanes (IUPAC naming) – Alkyl Halides or Cycloalkyl halides (common naming) IUPAC Rules for naming Halogenated Alkanes • Follow the same rules for naming alkanes / cycloalkanes • Lowest location number is given to the top priority group. • Alkyl and halogen substituents have the same ranking. • If 2 or more different substituents are present, the alphabetical order determines their priority.Physical Properties of Halogenated Alkanes • Density: Many halogen derivatives are heavier than water. • Polarity: They are mostly polar compounds (if unsymmetrical). • Boiling and Melting Points: – Generally higher than