ANTH 1013 1st Edition Lecture 10 Outline of Last Lecture I. OsteologyII. Anatomical TerminologyIII. The Skeletal SystemIV. Organizing the SkullV. Osteology of the SkullVI. The Spinal ColumnVII. The thoraxVIII. Osteology of the pelvisIX. Femur, Tibia, FibulaX. FootXI. Bone growth and developmentOutline of Current Lecture I. SystematicsII. Organizing the diversity of lifeIII. CladisticsIV. Cladograms depicting relationshipsV. Shared traitsVI. Schools of biological classificationVII. PrimatesCurrent LectureI. Systematicsi. The discipline within biology that is concerned with:a. Inferring the evolutionary relationships among organisms – phylogeny reconstructionb. Organizing and naming the taxa – classificationii. Why do we classify?a. To organize and convey informationb. Categories vary with our goalsiii. Schools of biological classificationa. Phonetics:1. Classifies species based on overall similarity2. Not concerned with phylogenyThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.3. Earliest approach, now less commonb. Cladistics1. Classifies species based on phylogeny only2. Developed in the 1960’s and now dominantII. Organizing the diversity of lifei. Carolus Linnaeusa. Father of taxonomy and systematicsb. Catalogued naturec. Developed the systema naturae (system of nature)ii. Systema Naturaea. Composed of hierarchical levels:1. Kindom2. Phylum3. Class4. Order5. Family6. Genus7. Speciesb. Relationships are nested: as you move up the hierarchy you form more and more inclusive groupsc. Linnaeus’ groups were based on his judgment of similarity and were thoughtto reflect basic “plans” in the mind of Godd. Linnaeus established the use of binomial nomenclature – the scientific nameof a species contains both the genus and species. Names are always written in italicse. Linnaeus relied on phonetics1. Linnaeus classification scheme was phonetic: based on overall similaritya. His scheme was not concerned with evolutionary relationships2. In fact, before Darwin, all categories of living things were based only on similaritya. Darwin explained such similarities in a very different way – they were inherited from a common ancestryb. Today our classification system reflects evolutionary relationshipsIII. Cladisticsi. Cladistics differs from phonetics in that it is exclusively concerned with evolutionary relationshipsii. Evaluates relationships between organisms by examining variation in traits and whether they are shared among multiple groups of organisms, or are unique to a single groupiii. Clade: an ancestral species and all of its descendent species; are nested within larger cladesiv.v. The species in a clade sharetraits because…a. Trait involves a lineageb. Trait persists indescendantsc. All taxa in clade exhibit atraitvi. Shared traits suggest commonancestryvii. Today, we use hierarchical rankscreated by Linnaeus, but only give names to cladesviii.Clades are lineages, so another name for a clade is a monophyletic groupix. Our job is to infer membership in a monophyletic groupx. Paraphyletic Grouping: an ancestral species and some of its descendantsIV. Cladograms depicting relationshipsi. A cladogram is not a phylogenybecause it does not show how ancestors are related to descendants or how much they have changedii.iii.Symplesiomorphy: a trait that isfound in the last commonancestorof some specifiedgroup of taxa and that is expected to be in that ancestor’s descendants (shared ancestral trait)iv. Ancestral and derived are relative termsv. Review:a. Clade: an ancestral species and all of its descendent species; are nested within larger cladesb. Ingroup (taxa of interest) vs. outgroup (taxon outside of interest)c. Last common ancestord. Monophyletic group: same as ‘clade’e. Paraphyletic: an ancestral species and some of its descentantsf. Polyphyletic group: a group of species but NOT including the ancestorg. Symplesiomorphy (shared ancestral trait): not informative about relationships in ingroup because all taxa in the group should have ith. Synapomorphy: shared derived trait: only trait type that is informative aboutrelationships within the ingroup because only some taxa will share iti. Autapomorphy: uniquely derived trait: not informative about relationships in ingroup because only one taxon has itV. Shared traitsi. Homology: retained in descentantsa. Similarities etween organisms based on descendent from a common ancestorii. Analogy: similar features evolves twicea. Similarities between organisms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descentiii. Homoplasy: the separate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms. Also referred to as convergent evolution, since shape converges in two groupsiv. Homologous traitsa. Shared ancestral: symplesiomorphy1. Not useful for phylogeny reconstructionb. Shared derived: synapomorphy1. Only type used for phylogeny reconstructionv. Analogous traitsa. Convergent trait: homoplasy1. Mislead hylogeny reconstructionvi. The prehensile tail evolving twice in a clade; this is an example of a homoplasyVI. Schools of biological classificationi. Phoneticsa. Classifies species based on overall similarityb. Not concerned with phylogenyc. Earliest approach, now less commonii. Cladisticsa. Classifies species based on phylogeny onlyb. Developed in the 1960’s and now dominantiii. Evolutionary systematics combines these two approaches a. Classifies based partially on phylogenyb. Recognizes “grades” and cladesiv. Paraphyletic groups do not contain all descendents of a common ancestorv. Molecular phylogeneticsa. Analysis of molecular differences to gain information about shared evolutionary relationshipsVII. Primatesi. Primates are highly variable in…a. Dietb. Habitatc. Locomotiond. Sizee. Social structureii. What do all primates have in common?a. Grasping hands and feet1. All primates have a hail on their big tow rather than a claw2. Most have nails on all four of their digits3. Primate hands are exceptionally dexterousb. Enhanced vision: eyes rotated toward the fromtc. Reduced sense of smell (olfactiond. Large complex of brainsiii. The arboreal hypothesisa. Primate features are adaptations for life in the treesiv. The comparative methoda. The comparative method is used to test hypotheses about adaptation. This method looks for repeated associationsb. Primate