BY 124 1st Edition Exam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 7 - 13Lecture 7What are hyphae? What do they do? What are they called in parasitic Fungi? What are the two different forms of hyphae?Hyphae form mats called mycelium in fungi. This is allows for digestion of nutrients from soil andsometimes other plants. In parasitic fungi, hyphae is referred to as “haustorium.” The two forms of hyphae are: septate hypha (separates nuclei with partitions that have holes in them for communication) and coencytic hypha (nuclei are not separated).What is the dominant stage in Fungi? Are they mainly asexual or sexual? Describe the sexual cycle.The dominant stage in fungi is haploid and they are typically asexual. Sexual reproduction occurs during bad times. For the sexual cycle, mycelium will come together and fuse their cytoplasm. This is referred to as plasmogamy. Then karyogamy occurs where the nuclei from the two different fungi fuse together. This forms the zygote. Meiosis soon follows, producing spores that are then germinated which result in more mycelium. From here the cycle can start over or it can shift over to the asexual cycle.Lecture 8What are the five major groups of Fungi? What is the largest group of fungi? What is its common name? What is its life cycle? (Lecture 7 and 8)Chytrids, Zygomycetes, Glomeromycetes, Ascomycetes, and Basidiomycetes. The largest group offungi is the Ascomyctes, otherwise known as the “sac fungi.” Their lifecycle: In asexual reproduction, the mycelium can produce haploid cells called conidia. Germination occurs in the conidia and this forms hypha which then form mycelium. In sexual reproduction, there are two different types of mycelia (+ or -,sort of like male and female in humans). These two types of mycelium will come together and plasmogamy will occur. This creates a heterokaryotic organism with a diploid nucleus. From here karyogamy occurs which is followed by meiosis which produces four haploid nuclei. Then these nuclei undergo mitosis and form eight ascosporeswhich will then be discharged through the ascocarp. These will then form the new mycelium.Describe the life cycle of Basidiomycetes. These fungi are specifically sexual fungi. Two haploid mycelia of two different types undergo plasmogamy. This dikaryotic organism then forms the basidiocarp that will develop gills lined in basidia. These are terminal cells that will undergo karyogamy to form a diploid nucleus. Each nucleus undergoes mitosis to create four haploid nuclei, each of which will develop into a basidiospore. These basidiosporesare released and carried by wind. If they land in suitable conditions then these basidiospores willgerminate to form more haploid mycelia.What are five main characteristics of Animals? i. Eukaryoticii. Heterotrophic (digestive, not absorptive)iii. Store carbohydrates in glycogeniv. No cell wallsv. Need oxygen to come in and carbon dioxide to leaveDescribe early embryonic development.The zygote of an animal will undergo a series of mitotic divisions referred to as cleavage. This forms an eight-cell embryo. To achieve these eight cells, the zygote had to undergo mitosis three times. After cleavage, a multicellular stage is produced called a blastula. This is usually a hollow ball of cells thatsurround the blastocoel, the cavity that is being surrounded. Following blastulation is gatrulation. This is the process by which one end of the embryo folds inward producing the embryonic tissues: ectoderm and endoderm (eventually mesoderm will arise from the endoderm as the embryonic stage progresses).Why did animals increase in diversity/why were they able to survive during the Cambrian Explosion? There was an increase in oxygen and cellular respiration, an increase in prey, and Hox genes arose.What are the two subkingdoms of Kingdom Animalia? Parazoa and Eumetazoa. Parazoa contains only the phylum Porifera, or sponges. Eumetazoa, meaning “true animals,” include basically all of the other phyla of Kingdom Animalia. Describe the different types of symmetry. Give an example of each.Asymmetry is the lack of symmetry completely (ex. Sponges). There is no way that the organism can be split to form a mirror image. Radial symmetry indicates that the organism can be split in any direction down the middle and it will be symmetric no matter what (ex. Jellyfish). Bilateral symmetry means that the organism can only be cut in one direction down the middle in order to be symmetric (ex. Worms, dogs, fish, humans).What are the different types of body cavities?Some only have 2 layers → diploblastic (Endo- and ectoderm) while some have three layers → triploblastic (Endo-, meso-, and ectoderm)a. Coelomate a. Coelom = body cavityi. Endoderm is completely surrounded by mesodermb. Pseudocoelomatesa. “space” between mesoderm and endodermc. Acoelomates a. No coelom/ cavityi. No space between gut and outside wallCompare Protostome vs. Dueterostome development.Protostome DeuterostomeCleavage Spiral and determinate Radial and indeterminate Coelom formation Parts of the mesoderm willsplit off and begin to the form the coelom independent of the rest of the mesodermForms as outpockets of archenteron of the mesodermFate of blastopore(Mouth vs. Anus)Mouth forms first (blastopore = mouth)Mouth forms second (blastopore = anus)Lecture 9Describe the anatomy of the sponge. Include mesohyl, pores, spongocoel, choanocytes, and amobeocytes. What type of symmetry do sponges have? What are spicules and what are the different types?a. Porous – many pores/holesb. Suspension feeders i. Capture food particles suspended in water which passes through the body1. Water is drawn through the central cavity (the spongocoel) and then flows out of sponge through a larger opening (the osculum).c. Some have folded body walls and many branched water canals as well as several osculad. Basal animals – meaning that they represent a lineage that originates near the root of the phylogenic tree of animalse. *lack true tissues i. Groups of similar cells will act as a functional unit and are isolated from other tissues by membranous layersf. Contains several types of cells:i. Lining of internal spongocoel has flagellated collar cells (choanocytes) [named sofor its finger-like projections that form a “collar” around the flagellum]1. These cells engulf bac and food particles by phagocytosis2. **the similarities between choanocytes and the cells of the choanoflagellates supports molecular evidence suggesting that