5. Olfactiona) Pathway(1) begins with particles that we bring in and are spun in a circular path to the cribriform plate(2) at the cribriform plate here there are olfactory hair cells that extend through the nasal epithelium and their dendritic ends are filled with receptors(3) There are about 3000 receptors in the nasal olfactory epithelium(4) when these cells react, their material is relayed into the olfactory nerve or olfactory bulb(5) olfactory bulb- has a set of mitral cells (convergence and divergence pathways) most of these senses can control appetite, can warn us, and also plays a big part in punishment and reward.6. Hearinga) inner cochlear – sound energy(1) pitch- difference in tones that we can detect (tones have specific wave energy for the different tones, base tones are very low energy, the lowest tone is 20 Hz, our highest pitch is 20,000Hz)(2) Volume or Decibel ratings – low limit is 8-10 db, and higher end is 80- 100 db, and these increase by a magnitude by about 9b) Movement of sound:(1) Enters through external auditory canal by the auricle into the internal auditory canal(2) Then the sound energy vibrates the tympanic membrane which is connected to the auditory ossicles that vibrate at the exact same frequency and this is the first of the transduction pathways (sound energy to mechanical energy)(3) Each ossicle (maleus, incus and stapes) vibrates to where the stapes is connected to the oval window of the cochlea, it vibrates at a frequency of the window membrane in order to generate a fluid wave within the scala vestibuli or the scala tympanic (fluid= perilymph) the frequency enters at the same rate, but begins to separate because of the perilymph.(4) When perilymph starts to separate sound energy, they do so based on energy strength (the strongest energy begins looking for the pathway of least energy, allowing it to cross over the vestibular membrane to the cochlear duct- high pitch.(5) Lower pitch- continue though the perilymph until they find an area of lower resistance in order to cross over the cochlear duct, the distal cochlear is where the base sounds will pass(6) Once it has passed the cochlear duct, the energy is transmitted as fluid wave through the scala tympanic or tympanic duct, which allows fluid waves to vibrate the round window and cause an air shift that can move down the Eustachian canal, this is how the air movements gets out of our ear so as not to obstruct any sound (can be fluid filled and dull our hearing).c) Energy movement is High energy vestibular duct to low energy tympanic ductd) The vibrational distortion of the tectoral membrane causes the hair of the cochlea to move and send a signal to the auditory nervee) Basilar membrane varies in thickness, this is why different frequencies can pass through different areas, so that we can determine pitch7. Balancea) The inner ear provides us 2 types of balance static body balance and dynamic body balance(1) Static body balance- housed within the vestibule with 2 sensor organs the ootual sacuole, and deeper in this area is the audolyphic organ composed of a Ca salt crystal imbedded in gelatinous fluid that lies over a specialized neural epithelial cell- these have cilia, one is very large called the quino cilium, if the crystals move towards this, then an action potential is made, if they move away, then it is hyperpolarized(a) We can detect the difference between acceleration and deceleration movements when we are stationary (ex. When in a car)(2) Dynamic body balance- movement, idea that we move our head and the rest of the body follows, the ampulla of each semicircular canal can be activated or deactivated by the cupula,(a) Ampulla in the superior semicircular canal, allows balance when nodding head yes, lateral or transverse canal activated when shake your head no, and lastly is the posterior canal which allows the flexion side to sideb) Each ear is designed anatomically so that movement in one direction is the only one activated and the other side is inhibited- this eliminates confusion as to where sound is coming fromc) Routing- balance senses activate second order neurons in the medulla, and are diverged over to the cerebellum and the motor and somatic motor cortex so that we can readjust body-positioning based on that informationd) The auditory information stays on the same side and is processed in the temporal auditory cortex, so that information is not shared between sides until it is processed on the side it comes it, so that we can recognize a timing difference to give us location and pitch2. Visiona) Based on light energy(1) only sensitive from violet to red range(2) below is UV lights that destroy cells and above is IR, which is also damaging(3) In this range of violet to red carry a photon that travel in a straight lineb) 2 ways to capture photons:(1) capturing those reflected from near objects (divergence- diverging rays need to be captured and accommodated)(2) capturing those reflected from far objects (light rays are parallel that need to be modified)c) retina= area of captured) Path of light(1) light is captured in the retina(2) enter through the cornea(3) then are filtered through the pupil, and the iris muscle is part of the cilliary complex (muscle and tendon group that is attached to the lens of our eye- when eye is relaxed, lens is pulled tight, making the lens thin and there would be less retina ability to capture. Thick lenses are needed for near sight, divergent light, bending of the light rays and making adjustments of the light rays in the eye)e) Way light passes:(1) 1st Ganglion cell, then A-cell and bipolar cell, then Hcell then photoreceptor cell- which has a specialized sensor cell known as Rodobson(2) Rhodopsin- made of retinol (photo pigment- light capturing) and opsin (protein membrane receptor- changes the chemical opening of channels in photoreceptor cells)(a) When these are combined to make rhodopsin, the activity of opsin is inhibited, but when photon energy strikes retinol, it causes dissociation that activates opsin – this change changes what is happening at the bipolar cell, which changes the relay at the ganglion cellf) RELAY- each eye has individual receptive field and a combinational field (monocular and binocular field) these relays are different.(1) Both monocular fields strike the medial retina, follow the color of medial retinal so see that it crosses over at the optic chiasm to the opposite side cortex.(2) The binocular zones strike the