- Subfields of anthropology: o Cultural Anthropology The study of human societieso Archeology The study of the material culture of past peopleso Linguistic anthropology The study of language, its origins and useo Biological anthropology The study of human biology in an evolutionary framework- Biomechanics- Genetics- Skeletal biology- Primatology- Paleoanthropology - Forensicso Allied Fields Ecology Biology Geology Anatomy Archeology- Goals of Science o Acquire Knowledgeo Seek natural cause explanationso Searches for observable regularityo Relies on empirical observations by independent observers- Scientific Method: o Observationo Hypothesis  Establish whether it is valid---falsifiable  A guess about how something works---a casual relationshipo Test hypothesis  Evaluate how regular it is  We can support of reject the hypothesis - Support indicates that you will need to test the hypothesis over and over again. o Create theories and laws Very well supported and have high confidence- Contributors: o Aristotle: Scala Naturae/Great Chain of Being 4th Century B.C.o Copernicus: Mathematician/Astronomer Heliocentric Universe- Replaced geocentrismo Plato: Fixity of species Essentialism: things have set of unchanging characteristics to make them what they are. o Carolus Linnaeus:  1707-1778 Father of taxonomy and systematics- Systema Naturaeo Established use of binomial nomenclatureo Archbishop James Usser:  1581-1656 Calculated age of earth using Old Testament- October 23, 4004 BCo Mary Anning:  1799-1847- Paleontologist- Correctly identified that coprolites were fossilized feces.o Georges Cuvier:  1769-1832 Father of paleontology and comparative anatomy Helped establish extinction as fact Divided animal kingdom using anatomy:- Vertebrates- Mollusks- Jointed or segmented animals- Zoophyteso Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: 1744-1829 Coined term “biology”  Theory of the inheritance of Acquired Characteristicso Thomas Malthus: 1766-1834 Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)o Charles Lyell:  1797-1875 Father of Geology Was in favor of uniformitarianism vs. catastrophism- Earth’s features are the result of long term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. o Charles Darwin:  1809-1882 Darwin’s finches---theory of evolutiono Alfred Russel Wallace: 1823-1913 Father of biogeography Field biologist in Indonesia- Sent Darwin his theory of natural selectiono Antoine van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 Father of microbiology- Made improvements in microscope- Discovered sperm- Proposed Homunculus Theoryo Johan Gregor Mendel 1822-1884 Garden peas experiment- Mendel’s law of segregationo Hugo de Vries:  1848-1935 Mutation Theory of Evolution Suggested concept of geneso Carl Correns: 1864-1933 Principles of Heredityo Erich von Tschermak: 1871-1962 Developed disease resistant cropso Rosalind Franklin: 1920-1958 Made critical contributions to understanding of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal, and graphite.o James Watson: 1928-present co-discoverer of structure of DNAo Francis Crick: 1916-2004 co-discover of structure of DNANEED TO KNOW DEFENITIONS: - Scala Natura (Great Chain of Being)- Geocentrism: o World is in perfect harmony; extinction is impossibleo Earth is at the center of the universe- Teleology:o Argument for existence of intelligent creator based on perceived evidence of deliberate design. - Argument from design:o Another name for teleology- Essentialism:o A belief that things have a set of unchanging characteristics that make them what they are; variation among things is just unimportant deviation from the “essence” - Fixity of species: o Species are composed of similar individuals sharing the same essenceo Species are separated from one another by well-defined discontinuities. o Species are constant through timeo There are stringent limitations to the possible variations of any one species. - Systema Naturae:o Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Specieso Binomial nomenclature- Heliocentrism: o The universe revolves around the sun- Catastrophism:o View that earth’s geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. - Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: o A trait acquired by an animal during its lifetime can be passed to offspring.- Uniformitarianism: o Charles Lyell was a supportero Theory that earth’s features are the result of a long term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. - HMS Beagle: o The boat that carried Darwin and his crew to explore South American and the Galapagos.- Biogeography:o Studies that compare the distribution of species from different geographic space and through geological time. - On the origin of species: o Published in 1859 o Darwin’s book on natural selection- Natural Selection: o If more offspring are produced than survive, those that survive because they are more fit will leave behind more offspring. - Fitness:o Better suited to compete for resources. - Artificial Selection: o Human made breeding and selection. - Homunculus Theory/ Preformation’s: o Theory of Embryo development used in late 17th and late 18th centuries. Generation of offspring occurs as a result of unfolding the growth of preformed parts. - Blending Inheritance: o Features of offspring are the average of the ones seen in the parents. - Mendel’s Law of Segregation: o Genes do not blendo Traits must be represented by pairso Genes come in different forms (alleles) o Each copy segregates into a difference sex cell (gamete) - Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment: o Each trait sorts independentlyo Alleles of one gene do not influence what happens with alleles from other genes. - Phenotype: o The observable expression of the genotype- Genotype: o The genetic makeup of an individual - Allele: o Alternate forms of a gene: - Homozygous: o The same allele at a single locus- Heterozygous: o Two different alleles at a single locus. - Recessive: o An allele that isn’t expressed in a heterozygote - Dominant: o An allele that prevents the expression of a recessive allele in a heterozygote- Punnett Square:o Mendel’s way of determining what the generation could look likeo A square cut into quadrants with the alleles on the top and left. - Locus: o Specific location of a gene, DNA sequence, or position on a