Book chapters covered: 1-5Major issuesTermsPeopleATY 253 1st EditionExam # 1 Study GuideBook chapters covered: 1-5 Major issues What are the four subdisciplines of anthropology? What sorts of questions dothey attempt to answer? 1. Cultural (or socio-cultural) Anthropology: how human cultures and societies work, modern diversity, recent past of these cultures 2. Archaeology: material remains of the past, how and where people lived, understand past cultures, how cultures change over time3. Linguistic Anthropology: how languages are structured and how they evolve, historical relationships between languages 4. Biological (or physical) Anthropology: how humans vary and evolve, both in the past and currently What is the holistic approach and how does it make anthropology unique? This approach looks at all people and their ancestors and all cultures in all times and places. What do we mean when we say biological anthropologists take a “bioculturalapproach” to understanding the human condition? They recognize the diversity of humans in all areas, and that they are both biological and cultural organisms. Humans are the product of both genetics and culture. How does the scientific method work? A person forms a TESTABLE hypothesis about something, then gathers repeatable data to test it with. Through observations, the hypothesis is either rejected/falsified OR supported/fail-to-reject OR is a partial fit (in which you would then modify your hypothesis). What did most people take for granted about species and the earth in the 16th and 17th centuries? People believed organisms were unchanging and organized in a chain, and that the earth was only 6,000 years old. What previous work did Darwin draw on in coming up with his theory of natural selection? He studied Charles Lyell’s ideas about how the earth is continually changing and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s belief in the inheritability of acquired traits, among others.What are the three tenets of Darwin’s theory of natural selection and how dothey fit together to contribute to change over time? 1. The struggle for existence—populations should grow indefinitely, but their sizes are limited due to limited resources. (There are more offspring created than the environment can support.)2. Populations are naturally variable—new variations occur by several factors, like mutation.3. Some variation is inheritable—adaptive traits can be passed down, changing allele frequencies, How was the theory of natural selection incomplete as conceived by Darwin?The laws of inheritance are for the most part unknown. Therefore, we do not know where variation ultimately comes from. Describe how alleles are expressed in a simple dominant-recessive system. If a dominant allele is present in the genotype, it is always expressed. If a recessive allele is present, it is only expressed if the dominant allele is absent. What is the difference between a genotype and a phenotype? A genotype is the combination of alleles in individual carriers, and a phenotype is the physical expression of that genotype. Describe the basic structure of DNA. Its structure is a double helix, like a ladder. The “legs” are made of sugar and phosphate molecules, and the “rungs” are made of paired nitrogen bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine). These are complimentary bases: A goes with T, and G goes with C. Describe the general process of DNA replication. The DNA “unzips” inside the nucleus, and then complimentary bases match up. This results in two DNA strands. What are the main differences between mitosis and meiosis? Mitosis forms exact copies of somatic (body) cells, and these new cells are diploid. Meiosis forms sex cells (gametes) that are haploid. Describe the relationship between DNA, amino acids, and proteins. DNA holds the instructions for protein synthesis, which are made up of amino acids. What are the differences between structural proteins and genes on the one hand, and regulatory proteins and genes on the other? Structural proteins and genes are both responsible for the physical characteristics of the body.Proteins of this type include keratin and collagen. Regulatory proteins (aka enzymes) regulate chemical reactions. Regulatory genes turn certain genes on and off. Describe the general process of protein synthesis. The first step in this process is transcription, when a segment of DNA is unzipped and the complimentary bases are matched up. Next, translation occurs, and the DNAmoves out of the nucleus. Codons match up to this DNA segment, and aminoacids are bound together to form a chain, creating a protein. What are Hox genes and why are they so important? These genes are the same for all organisms, and guide the development of their bodies. They determine the form of an organism’s body. How much of the human genome actually codes for proteins? Only about 2-5% of the genome is “coding.” Why is it that we resemble our parents, but do not look exactly like them? We obtain half of our genes from our father, and half from our mother, but also have variations dissimilar from both of them within our genes. In terms of genetics, what is evolution? Genetically, evolution is the increasing and decreasing presence of (and sometimes disappearance of) alleles within a population or species. Why is the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation important? Departures fromthis equilibrium suggest that evolutionary forces are at work, and the population is evolving. It can be used to compare to changing allele frequencies. Where does variation in organisms ultimately come from? It comes from mutations in gametes, and the ordering of base pairs in nucleotides. Why is it that only mutations in the gametes are evolutionarily significant? Mutations that do not occur in the gametes cannot be passed on, or inherited by offspring, and therefore would not have an impact on the evolution of future generations. Explain how each of the forces of evolution (natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation) can change gene frequencies over time.1. Natural Selection: advantageous traits are passed down over time; features that gain mating success are inherited (sexual selection). 2. Genetic Drift: genetic change due to chance; random events cause changes in allele frequencies3. Gene Flow: movement of alleles from one population to another; involves social factors, migration, etc.4. Mutation: if they occur in gametes, mutations are the only source