Exam # 1 Study Guide Chapters: 3 – 6, 28.2 Chapter 3: The Chemical Building Blocks of Life. Terms and Definitions: - Carbon: element that can form up to four covalent bonds and attach to O, N, S, P, or H. - Functional groups: groups that attach to hydrocarbons (C-H) and account for differences in molecular properties. - Isomers: organic molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural formula. - Organic molecule: consists of carbon atoms in rings or long chains that attach to atoms such as O, H, and N. - Steroid: a class of lipid, composed of 4 carbon rings (eg. Cholesterol, hormones such as estrogen and testosterone). - Nucleotide: repeating subunits of nucleic acid polymers. What are Macromolecules? What is their function? MacromoleculesCarbohydrates Energy storageProteins Diverse functionsLipidsHydrophobic moleculesNucleic AcidsInformation molecules BIO 183 1st EditionMacromolecules: Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids Monosaccharide: -simplest sugar (glyceraldehyde, deoxyribose, glucose) Disaccharide: -made of two monosaccharides linked by dehydration -acts as a transport molecule and nutrition provider (Lactose, sucrose, maltose) Polysaccharide: -made of three or more monosaccharides - provides energy storage (glycogen used by animals, starch used by plants) -provides structural support (cellulose used by plants, chitin used by fungi and arthropods) -Composed of long and unbranched chains of polypeptide -Each polypeptide is composed of linear chain of amino acid -Different levels of structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) -diverse functions (enzyme catalysis, motion, regulation, defense, transport, support, storage) -made of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecule (triglyceride) -Hydrophobic (nonpolar C-H bonds) -oil, fats, waxes, steroids, etc. -Fatty acids: Saturated: single bond animal origin Unsaturated: 1 or more double bond plant origin -long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides -Nucleotide : pentose (5C sugar), phosphate group, organic nitrogenous base -deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -ribonucleic acid (RNA) -Allow genetic information to be preserved during cell division and reproduction -adenosine triphosphate (ATP): primary energy currency of the cell -NAD+ and FAD+: electron carriers for cellular reactions6. What makes cellulose different than starch? Cellulose: polymer of β-glucose (β-1  4 linkages). Starch: polymer of α-glucose (α-1  4 linkages). What are amino acids? How do they look like? Amino Acids: - They are the basic elements (building blocks) of proteins. - Basic structure: C-H linked to a functional group (R), carboxyl group COOH (acidic), and amino group NH2 (basic). Example: Alanine (Ala) where R = CH3 What are the diverse functions of proteins? What are their levels of structure? Protein functions: - Enzyme catalysis: facilitate specific chemical reactions. - Motion: move materials within cells. - Regulation: act as intercellular messengers and cell-surface receptors. - Defense: recognize foreign microbes through cell-surface receptors.- Transport: move molecules and ions across membrane. - Support: play structural role - Storage: storage proteins bind to ions (eg. Calcium). Protein levels of structure: 1) Primary: sequence of amino acid. 2) Secondary: arrangement of primary structure. 3) Tertiary: final folded shape in 3D. 4) Quaternary: arrangement of subunits (two or more polypeptide chains). How do dehydration and hydrolysis differ? When do they occur? Dehydration (condensation) and hydrolysis: What does triglyceride look like? What is it made of? Triglyceride:What is phospholipid? Where can it be found? Phospholipid: -Composed of 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids (nonpolar tails) and a phosphate group (polar head). They form membranes (eg. Cells) What is the difference between DNA and RNA? DNA and RNA: -They have similar structure consisting of phosphate group, nitrogenous base and a sugar with OH in RNA and H in DNA (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA). -DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded. -DNA uses thymine while RNA uses uracil instead. What does denaturation do? How can it be done? Denaturation: -Inactivates proteins. -Can be done by changing PH, temperature, or ionic concentration of the surrounding solution. Chapter 4: Cell Structure. Terms and definitions:- Organelle: any discrete macromolecule structure. - Cristae: folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. - Thylakoid: vesicles containing chlorophyll in a chloroplast. - Secretory pathway: the path a cell uses to move proteins out - Metabolism: Sum of all reactions that take place: -Anabolism: synthesis (building up by dehydration). -Catabolism: breaking down by hydrolysis. - Plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer. - Cytoplasm: A semifluid matrix that fills the interior of the cell. - Nuclear envelope: two phospholipid bilayer (envelope) that surround the nucleus. The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. - Cytosol: part if the cytoplasm that contains organic molecules and ions in solution. What is the cell theory? Cell theory: - All organisms are composed of one or more cells. - Cells are the smallest living things - Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell. What are the types of microscopes? What is the difference between resolution and magnification? Microscopes: - Light microscopes: operate with visible light and use magnifying lenses to achieve high clarity. - Transmission electron microscopes: electrons used to visualize the specimens are transmitted through the material. - Scanning electron microscope: beams electrons onto the surface. The reflected electrons are amplified and transmitted to a screen. -Resolution: the minimum distance two parts can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points. -Magnification: Increase in size, volume or significance. What is the importance of Surface Area-to-Volume ratio?-As the size of the cell increases, the length of time for diffusion from outside to inside or vice versa increases. -As a cell’s size increases, its volume increases much more rapidly than its surface area. -Smaller cells have more surface area per unit volume than larger ones, thus they have control over cell content and more effective. What are the types of cells? What is their structure? How are they organized? Prokaryotic