BIOL 240 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 6Lecture 1 (January 8)Essential elements- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Sulfur - 96% of all living thingsAtomic mass- (number of protons) + (number of neutrons)Atomic number- Number of protonsProtons- Positive charge- Determine the identity of the element- Found in the nucleusNeutrons- Neutral charge- Determines isotopeo Same element, different mass- Found in the nucleusElectrons- Negative charge- Determines charge of atom and chemical behavior- Found in orbitals around the nucleusImportance of valence and valence shells - The further away the electrons are from the nucleus, the greater the energy of the electron- Chemical behavior of atom depends on:o Valence shell: outermost shell that contains electronso Valence electrons: electrons on the outermost shellCovalent - Two atoms share a pair of valence electronsIonic - So unequal in valence shell attraction that the electron is stripped away- Bond is formed due to opposite chargeElement- 92 in nature- Same element combined: moleculeCompound- Different elements combinedElectronegativity- Attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond- Polar: unequally pulling- Nonpolar: equal pullingLecture 2 (January 13)Water- Importance:o Living things contain 70-80%o Has polar covalent bonds: polar moleculeo Has hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds- Allows water to have four properties:o Cohesion/Adhesion Cohesion: attraction to itself Adhesion: attraction to other substanceso Moderate temperatures Evaporative cooling: transformation of liquid to gas Water has high specific heat which allows lifeo Expansion upon freezing Hydrogen bonds in ice are more ordered allowing ice to float on liquid watero Water as a versatile solvent Water is partially positive and partially negative allowing constant interaction Dissolves: non-ionic polar molecules, large polar molecules with ionic/polar molecules, and not nonpolar moleculesLecture 3 (January 15)pH (no calculations required)- PH scale: measurement of acidity and basicity- The product of H+ and OH- ions are constanto [H+] [OH-] = 10-14- pH of a solution is pH=-log[H+]- pH + pH = 14Buffers- The internal pH of most living cells must remain close to pH of 7- Buffer: combats H+ of OH- that would change the pH- Human blood: carbonic acid is a buffer in human bloodLecture 4 (January 20)Organic- Made by a living thingInorganic- Anything not made by a living thing (metal)Monomer/polymer- Polymers: made of many monomerso Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins- Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer by adding water- Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer by taking away water4 macromolecules- Carbohydrateso Monosaccharide: one sugaro Disaccharide: two sugarso Polysaccharide: many sugars Storage- Starch- Glycogen- Cellulose- Lipidso Do not form true polymerso Little to no affinity for watero Hydrophilic hydrocarbonso Phospholipid bilayers Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic headsLecture 5 (January 22)- Proteinso 50% of dry mass of most cellso Does the most in the cello Functions Provides support, growth, movement, transports substances, and helps chemical reactionso Monomer: amino acid R-groups: change from one amino acid to another: convey differentproperties to the amino acids Nonpolar side chains: hydrophobic Polar side chains: hydrophilic Electrically charged side chains: hydrophilico Four levels of protein structure: Primary: string of amino acids Secondary: Backbones bind to each other by hydrogen bonds Tertiary: Side chains interact (can be the last step_ Quaternary: Several polypeptides together- Nucleic acidso Two types: RNA DNADNA vs RNA bases- Pyrimidine:o Cytosine (C)o Thymine (T in DNA)o Uracil (U in RNA)- Purineso Adenine (A)o Guanine (G)Prokaryote vs Eukaryote- Prokaryoteo Domain of bacteria and archaeao Characterized by having: No nucleus Nucleoid No membrane bound organelles- Eukaryoteo Domain of protists, fungi, animals, and plantso Characterized by having Nucleus Membrane bound organelles Generally much larger than prokaryotes Lecture 6 (January 27)Evolution of the Eukaryote- Enveloped by a double membrane- Contain bacterial size ribosomes and circular DNA molecules- Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cellsER- Produces an enormous variety of molecules- Connected to the nuclear envelope- Composed of rough and smooth ERGolgi- Move through vesicles- Lipids and proteins move through GolgiLysosome- Synthesize/break down lipids- pH of 4- Gets rid of unwanted organellesVacuole- Storage for water, food, and chemicals (to remove unwanted pests)Endomembrane system- Interconnects: nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, and Plasma membraneChloroplast- Light energy to food energyMitochondria- Food energy to chemical energyCell walls- Extracellular structure found in plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists- Provides protection, support, and prevents excessive water uptakeAntibiotics- Superbugs- Antibiotic resistance is going
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