Final Exam Study Guide· Ecosystem – biotic/abiotic, ecosystem services-Ecosystems–All the organisms, and their physical and chemical environments–Biota–living organisms•Plants, animals, bacteria, etc.–Abiotic–nonliving elements of the environment•Water, temperature, minerals, etc.-Ecosystems provide humans with many services–Provisioning services–Regulating services–Cultural services–Supporting services· Scientific method – experimental design, hypotheses, inductive/deductive reasoning -Scientific Method:1. Ask a question2. Do background research3. Construct hypothesis4. Test with an experiment or detailed observations 5. Analyze Results/ Draw Conclusion 6. Results1. Hypothesis is TRUE2. Hypothesis is FALSE or partly true 7. Report Results-Experiment: an activity that tests the validity of a hypothesis–Hypothesis: testable explanations•Falsifiable–could be proven wrong-Inductive Reasoning–Used to discover general principles–Seeks a unifying explanation for all the data available–Ex:•FACT: Gold is a metal heavier than water•FACT: Iron is metal heavier than water•FACT: Silver is a metal heavier than waterBIOL 1060 1st Edition-CONCLUSION (based on inductive reasoning): All metals are heavier than water–Conclusions reached with inductive reasoning may changed with new information-Deductive Reasoning–Proceeds from generalities to specifics–Adds nothing new to knowledge, but makes relationships amongdata more apparent–Ex:•GENERAL RULE: All birds have wings•SPECIFIC EXAMPLE: Robins are birds•CONCLUSION (based on deductive reasoning): All Robins have wings· Feedback (positive/negative) •Processes regulated by biotic and abiotic factors–Dynamic homeostasis•Systems adjust to reduce change from normal–Negative feedback•System reverses a directional changeKind of balances out (good in a way)– Positive feedback•System reinforces changeadds on to the problem Chapter 3· Energy, 1 st and 2 nd laws of thermodynamics •Laws of thermodynamics–First law•Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; can be transformed–Second law•Energy transformations increase disorder–Entropy–Energy often lost as heatBIOL 1060 1st Edition--Everything goes somewhere· Structure of water, importance of polarity and hydrogen bonding, importance to Earth Structure of water: -Water behaves uniquely because of its polarity and hydrogen bonds.-Water is “sticky” – which means phase changes involve a lot of heat energy. Polarity: -Polarity ISN’T magnetism, but it functions in a similar way.BIOL 1060 1st Edition· pH -In pure water, hydroxyl and hydrogen ions are equally abundant, and pH = 7. Lemon juice is acidic because hydrogen ions outnumber hydroxyl ions. The reverse is true of milk of magnesia, which is alkaline.-The pH scale is a quantitative representation of the relative amounts of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in a liquid ( Figure 3.10 ). The pH of pure wateris 7, which is said to be neutral. When the concentration of H+ exceeds that of OH–, the water is acidic and has a pH value of less than 7. When the concentration of OH– exceeds that of H+, the water is basic, and its pH is greater than 7. Each pH unit reflects a 10-fold change in the amount of H+ ions relative to OH– · Cause of seasons -The Earth tilt on the axis -Solar Angle:-The angle at which the sun's radiation strikes Earth increases, and the amount of sunlight received per unit area decreases from the equator to the poles. Solar energy at the equatorial regions is BIOL 1060 1st Editionconcentrated in a smaller surface area. Solar energy at the polar regions is spread out over a larger surface area. · Atmosphere (troposphere and stratosphere, ozone) •Atmosphere: the thin layer of gases that surrounds Earth–Provides us with oxygen–Absorbs solar radiation and moderates climate–Burns up incoming meteors–Transports and recycles water and nutrientsTroposhere- where weather occurs, temp decreases with altitudeBIOL 1060 1st Edition-Troposphere (0–10km)–Where weather occurs–Temperature decreases with altitude Stratosphere- temp increases with altitude-very stable ?? -Stratosphere (10–45km)–Temperature increases with altitude- very stable–Ozone layer absorbs UV Mesosphere (45–80km)–Temperature decreases with altitude Ozone- absorbs UV, shields Earth from high energy radiation Atmosphere- gasses on Earth -78% nitrogen gas, 21% oxygen gas, 1% other gases -Human activity is changing the amounts of some gases. –Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone -”Right now I am mostly breathing ____” = nitrogen -Shields earth from high energy radiation Hydrosphere- water on Earth Lithosphere- Solid on Earth•Thermosphere (80–500 km) –Gases in thin air absorb x-rays and short-wave UV radiation = veryhot –Source of aurora•Exosphere (500km and up) –Outermost layer –Atmosphere continues to thin until converges with interplanetary spaceForms of energy potential and kinetic energy, entropy, u.v./infrared Potential energy- energy that has potention (ex: coal, food, gasolineBIOL 1060 1st EditionKinetic Energy- Energy in motion (ex: energy from food, fire from logs) -Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy exists in one of two general forms. Potential energy is the energy that is stored in a system and available to do work in the future; it is sometimes called the energy of position. Kineticenergy is the energy of motion. For example, consider the system of an expensive ceramic vase poised on top of a somewhat tippy table. •Energy exists as: –Potential energy (stored energy) –Kinetic energy (energy of motion)· Plate tectonics/layers of earth –Tectonic plates meet at boundaries•Transform fault boundaries–Plates slide past–Sites of earthquakes–Divergent boundaries•Plates spread apart–Convergent boundaries•Plates come together -Plates slide past one another along transform fault boundaries. As plates move past one another in fits and starts, they may generate earthquakes. Divergent boundaries separate plates that are moving apart. Such BIOL 1060 1st Editionboundaries coincide with ocean ridges. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a divergent