BIOL 1000 Final Exam Study Guide Chapters: 16, 17, 19, 21, 22*The final exam is cumulative but most of it is on these last few chapters, so go over the previous study guides briefly to refresh your memory*Chapter 16Know and understand each of these terms fully:-- Gene- Gene Expression- The Central Dogma- Genetic Code- Codon (start and stop codons)- Redundant, Unambiguous, Universal, Conservative- Mutation-the central dogma: DNA (information storage) -> Transcription-> mRNA (information carrier) -> Translation-> Proteins (active cell machinery)-an organism’s genotype is determined by the sequence of bases in its DNA-an organism’s phenotype is a product of the proteins it produces-Many genes code for RNA molecules that do not function as mRNAs and are not translated intoproteins, these other RNAs perform important functions in the cell-Transcription-is the process by which the hereditary information in DNA is copied to RNA-DNA is transcribed to mRNA by RNA polymerase -the mRNA is then translated to protein-Translation-is the process where the order of the nucleotide bases is converted to the order of aminoacids-reverse transcriptase: a viral polymerase, to synthesize a DNA version of the virus’s RNA genes-the genetic code contains the rules that specify the relationship between a sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA or RNA and the corresponding sequence of amino acids in a protein-the genetic code contains three bases, a three base code is known as a triplet code-Reading frame, a sequence of codons, of a gene could be destroyed by mutation and then restored if the total number of deletions or additions were multiples of 3-mutations:-There are different types of mutations-point mutations can lead to different outcomes-beneficial, neutral, deleterious-most mutations are neutral or slightly deleterious-differences in genotype may cause difference in phenotypeChapter 17Know and understand each of these terms fully:- Template strand- Non-template/Coding strand- Initiation- Elongation- Termination- Sigma- Bacterial Promoters (-10 & -35 box)- Intron- Exons- Spliceosome- mRNA- rRNA- tRNA- Wobble Hypothesis-transcription: the first step in converting genetic information proteins-synthesis of an mRNA version of the instruction stored in DNA-RNA polymerase performs this synthesis by transcribing only one strand of DNA (template strand); does not require a primer to start transcription-initiation, elongation, termination phases-prokaryotic RNA polymerase is a holoenyzme made up of the core enzyme and a sigma subunit and has the ability to synthesize RNA-RNA polymerase cannot initiate transcription on its own, sigma must bind to the polymerase first-What occurs inside the holoenzyme?-in bacteria, sigma subunits initiate transcription-eukaryotes have a much more diverse and complex series of promoters than prokaryotes; many of the promoters include the TATA box-in eukaryotes basal transcription factors bind to the DNA promoter and initiate transcription-in bacteria, the information in DNA is converted to mRNA directly; in eukaryotes the outcome of transcription is an immature primary transcript (pre-mRNA)-contains exons and introns-addition of a 5’cap and a poly(A) tail-introns are removed by splicing-translation: the sequence of bases in the mRNA is converted to an amino acid sequence in a protein-mRNA, rRNA, tRNA-initiation, elongation (3 steps), termination-in bacteria, transcription and translation can occur simultaneously. In eukaryotes, they are separated in space and time-tRNAs read codons and carry amino acids to position for protein synthesis-the A site of a ribosome is the acceptor site for an aminoacyl tRNA, the P site is where a peptide bond forms that adds an amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain, the E site is where tRNAs no longer bound to an amino acid and exit the ribosomeIntroduction to the Cardiovascular System-The ribosome is a molecular machine that synthesizes proteins in a three-step sequence-the active site of the ribosome is entirely ribosomal RNA (ribozyme)-translocation occurs when elongation factors move the mRNA down the ribosome, three nucleotides at a time-post-translational modification: most proteins go through ae extensive series of processing steps before they are ready to go to work in a cell-folding determines a protein’s shape and its function-many proteins are altered by enzymes that remove or add a phosphate group which causes theprotein from an inactive state to change into an active stateChapter 19Know and understand each of these terms fully:- Chromatin- Chromatin Remodeling- Regulatory Sequences & Proteins- Gene Expression- Alternative Splicing- RNA interference- The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System- P53-differential gene expression responsible for creating different cell types, arranging them into tissues, coordinating their activity and forms the multicellular society we call an individual-Differences between gene expression in eukaryotes and bacteria-packaging-alternative splicing-complexity-coordinated expression-control of gene expression in multicellular eukaryotes is more complex than in bacteria-abnormal regulation of gene expression can cause cancer-cancers are associated with mutations, which can lead to tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes-DNase is an enzyme that cuts DNA at random locations -proteins that are involved in modifying chromatin structure-ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes reshape chromatin-other enzymes catalyze protein modifications such as the acetylation and methylation-epigenetic inheritance: patterns of inheritance that is not due to differences in gene sequences-the histone code hypothesis contends that precise patterns of chemical modifications of histones varies from one cell type to another-gene transcription is initiated by transcription factors to help recruit RNA polymerase to the promoter-the discovery of enhancers and silencers resulted in redefining the gee as the DNA that codes for a functional protein or RNA molecule-regulatory transcription factors and basal transcription factors-mediator complex creates a physical link between regulatory transcription factors ad basal transcription factors-transcription initiation in eukaryotic cells-regulatory transcription factors bind to DNA and start the chromatin remodeling complexes-chromatin remodeling results in loosening of the chromatin structure-additional regulatory transcription factors bind enhancer’s ad promoter-proximal