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ECU SOCI 3225 - Final Exam Study Guide
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The Emergence of “Scientific” MedicineThe notion that disease & illness are the cause-and-effect result of observable patterns or relationships among events or phenomenaEarly HumansEgyptiansGreeksRomans 750 BCMedieval Era (500 A.D. through 1500)Renaissance 1400-1500’sSeventeenth Century (1600’s)Eighteenth Century (1700’s)Nineteenth Century (1800’s)American MedicineANESTHESIA, MEDICAL ADVANCEMENTS, AND PHYSICIAN STATUSThe Autonomic Nervous SystemBehavioral/Cognitive Aspects of Stress ResponseSOCI 3225 1st EditionFinal Exam Study GuideThe Emergence of “Scientific” Medicine- The notion that disease & illness are the cause-and-effect result of observable patterns or relationships among events or phenomenaThemes over time:1) SUPERNATURAL VS SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS OF DISEASE2) ALTERNATIVE VS ACCEPTEDa. (Which is which depends upon the prevailing view of the times)3) PREVENTIVE ORIENTATION VS CURATIVE4) Availability of “surplus energy,” or whether survival alone consumes much of the available human energy, leaving little for experimentation or speculation (luxuries)a. Surplus energy follows a food surplus, so available resources tied to physical location & environmental challenges become important for human cultural evolution.Early Humans- Early writings didn’t exist; inferences about health prior to 4000 BC are based upon bone & teeth evidence to describe nutrition, health and disease patterns.o Supernatural Beliefs: Spirits & sorcerers, the notion of “balance” “Social control…among the Inuit, people not conforming endangered the group by inviting the wrath of the godso Restore balance through prayer, exorcism, magic, bloodletting, drilling holes in of skull to let spirits out- Shamans: early practitioners who combined herbalism & curing ceremonies, including ritualistic dances, ceremoniesEgyptians- Physicians evolved into specialists- Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC) described the role of physicians- Ebers Papyrus: document-summarizing knowledge, offered diagnostic tips, prognoses, and therapies (including 800 different prescriptions).Greeks- A civilization of advanced and competing city-states.- Religion and health were linked- Apollo: sun god & the god of health & medicine. Hippocrates- Greek physician (460 – 377 BC) noted for:1. Natural (rather than supernatural) explanations for diseasea. Symptoms are reactions of the body to diseaseb. Job of physician is to assist the natural forces of the body in healing.c. Health is mental and physiological balanced. Natural elements of the earth are air, earth, fire, and wateri. The body’s elements are blood, phlem, yellow bile, and black bile and the person is healthy when these elements or humors are in balance2. 70 books, papers, and essays, which experimenter kept his notes describing the results of treatments3. Hippocratic Oath: taught compassion (person not to blame) & ethical treatment (no abortion, facilitating suicide, etc.)- Greeks were generally tolerant of multiple approached to health and medicine, including religious, magical, and empirical or evidence-based.Romans 750 BC- Rome dates to about - Militaristic society- Overlapped somewhat with the Greeks- Some early Roman physicians were Greek imports- Early Roman cities had relatively large number of people living together- Credited for attention to clean water supplies (aquaducts), central sewer systems, baths, street cleaning, early hospitals- Galen: Father of experimental physiologyo he dissected monkeys & pigso Studied skeletons of criminalso Concluded that “pneuma” or vital spirits circulated throughout the body- Western Roman Empire ended in 476 a.d. with tribal conquest of Europe, which led to scattered smaller fiefdoms.Medieval Era (500 A.D. through 1500)- Medicine based in monasteries- Disease & illness tested faith in God & in the church- Illnesses are God’s punishment, possession by the devil, or result of witchcraf- Saints for different body parts & prayed to them for cure- Any approach other than “faith-based” was blasphemous. - Second part of Medieval Era (from 1130 to around 1500) movement away from Monastic medicine (disrupted monastic separatism) to Scholastic medicine- Medicine responsibility of the “Secular” (concerned with religious intervention in “everyday” matters) clergy in early universities- Europe becoming over-populated & movement of people into cities- Epidemics age: waves of Bubonic Plague (mid 1300’s) that killed about 43 million people in 20 years & early European hospitals as poor houses.Renaissance 1400-1500’s- Era of Humanism or emphasis on individual dignity, importance of the present life (not aferlife) & individual freedomo Some of Galen’s earlier notions (pneuma, or the circulation of vital spirits in the body)- The humoral theory of disease was attacked- Medicine moved towards specialization: o Physicians: med school graduates who were gentleman & provided medical consultation for wealthy patientso Surgeons: lower status people who treated external complaints, broken bones & did minor surgeryo Barber Surgeons: performed major surgery and blood lettingo Apothecaries: dispensed herbs & other products prescribed by physicianso Generally an equal chance of getting better or getting worse, depending upon the wealth of the persons being “treated”o Generally viewed as mid-level occupations; families still the general source of care for most people.Seventeenth Century (1600’s)- Time of “exploration” prompted by the search for wealth to finance European wars (Spanish conquest of Latin America/Mexico) & to relieve population pressure.- Age of “modern” science; the need for better mechanisms to extract foreign resources.- Bacon & Descartes: dominant scientist-philosophers; mind to religion & body to science splitWilliam Harvey (Englishman)- Who confirmed the circulation of blood in the body and the role of the heart as the “pump” & cardiac valvesEighteenth Century (1700’s)- Morgagni (1682-1771): notion that diseases are connected to particular organs/anatomical origins ofdisease.o Saw initial concern about public health problems & unsanitary conditions in industry, prisons, cities, and hospitals- Early vaccination against smallpox tested & developed.Nineteenth Century (1800’s)- Industrial revolution (iron and textile industries)- Rapid urbanization & concentration of large numbers of people in small spaces- Medicine began to be centered in hospitals, from the sickbed


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ECU SOCI 3225 - Final Exam Study Guide

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