BIOL 112 1st EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 34-39*Study previous tests for the earlier material*Some questions will come straight from previous examsLecture 34 (November 21)Ancestral deuterostome  echinoderms and chordates (sister taxa)Chordate characteristics (always present in embryos, not always in adults)- Notochord – flexible dorsal rod- Endoskeleton works with muscles- Dorsal hollow nerve chord – tube forms from folded ectoderm above the notochord- Pharyngeal slits/Clefts- Ancestral use for filter feeding and gas exchange- Sea mouth  pharynx  slits  sea- Muscular post-anal tail- Multiple muscle segments for undulating locomotionInvertebrates - Cephalochordata: lancelets - All key chordate features in adults- Burrows for suspension feeding- Urochordata: tunicates (sea squirts)- Highly developed sessile adults- Suspension feeders with pharyngeal slits- Tough cellulose tunic- Only adult chordate characteristic is pharynx with slits (larval stage has all characteristics)- Incurrent and excurrent siphonsVertebrates- Vertebrae of cartilage or bone- Encloses dorsal verve chord (spinal chord)- Vertebral column replaces notochord as main body support (in most vertebrates); allows for larger body size Remnants are disks- Well-developed head- Cranium (skull of bone or cartilage) Holds brain (coordination of voluntary and involuntary movement)- Paired sensory organs - 1st vertebrates didn’t have jaws or teeth- Efficient circulatory system with a heart- Closed circulatory system- 2-4 chambers with valves- Hemoglobin in blood cells- Arteriole, capillary bed, artery, vein, venule, atrium ventricle- Gill arches/rods of cartilage/bone support gill slits- Muscle action helps ventilate gills- Earliest vertebrates- All jawless and fish-like- Many later jawless fish had bony armor plates Some with lateral fins All extinct by mid-Paleozoic, replaced by jawed fish Jawless Vertebrates- Myxini (hagfish)- Marine scavengers- Reduced eyes- Defensive slime- Petromyzontida (lampreys)- Jawless parasite on fish- Spinal cartilage elements- Keratin teethLecture 35 (November 24)Gnathostomes – having a jaw- Jaws derived from gill slit supports- Teeth derived from scales- Large forebrain (smell and sight)- Paired lateral fins/limbs- Aquatic adaptations- Lateral line system detects pressure waves from enemy/prey- Filamentous gills use countercurrent exchange for more oxygen in the blood Blood flows in the opposite direction of water for max oxygen diffusion Large surface areaFish are a paraphyletic group. Cartilaginous fish are basal Gnathostomes.Condricthyes – sharks, rays, and skates- Skeleton of cartilage - Buoyancy controlled by liver oils, active swimming, and a less dense skeleton- Osmoregulation and water balance- Water intake mostly from food- Retains urea in tissues Isotonic with seawater salt concentration is less in tissues than seawater expels excess salt by the kidneys in the feces- Internal fertilization- Varied development- Oviparous – egg is laid and the embryo develops inside the egg with a yolk- Ovoviviparous – egg retained in the mother and fed by yolk; live birth- Viviparous – embryo fed directly by mother’s tissue; live birth- Marine active predators- Spiral valve increases surface area for digestion and absorption Lecture 36 (December 1)Osteichthyes – bony fish- Paraphyletic (omits tetrapods)- Aquatic gnathostomes with ossified calcium phosphate skeleton- Flat scales with slime for protection and drag reduction- Operculum protects and pumps water over gills- Lungs- From out-pockets of the esophagus- Swallows air in oxygen poor freshwater for gas exchange- Modified to a swim bladder for most fish for low energy buoyancy- Osmoregulation - Marine Active transport ions from gills Kidneys excrete little urine- Fresh water Active transport of ions into gills Lots of dilute urine- External fertilization- Oviparous - Protected only by jellyActinopterygii – ray finned fish (diverse)- Thin fins supported by long, flexible rays- Marine and fresh waterSarcopterygii – lobe finned fish- Pelvic and pectoral fins supported with muscles and bones- Ex: coelacanths (Actinista), lungfish (Dipnoi)Tetrapods - 4 limbs with wrists and digits - Pelvic girdle fused to backbone- Neck- Lung-breathing as adultsTiktaalik and Acanthostega- Fish: scales, fins, gills and lungs- Tetrapod: eyes on top of the head, neck, flat skullAmphibians- Most basal extant tetrapods- Thin moist skin for gas exchange (loses water)- Gulping lungs also for gas exchange- 3 chambered heart- Dual circulation increases blood pressure, better oxygen supply- Reproduction closely tied to water (mostly oviparous)- Larval stage – aquatic with gills  metamorphosis  carnivorous adults- 3 orders:- Salamanders – 4 legs, tail- Frogs and toads – 4 legs, no tail- Caecilians – no legsLecture 37 (December 3)Amniotes – egg useful for dry environments, free from water- Embryo enclosed in amniotic sac- Amnion cushions embryo- Albumen stores water- Yolk stores and delivers nutrients- Chorion for gas exchange- Allantois for waste disposal - Porous egg shell protects and reduces water loss- Allows for gas exchange- Rigidity depends on amount of calcium carbonate- Fertilization must be internal- Shell is absent in most mammalsWaterproof Skin- Layers of dead cells with keratin and lipids- No gas exchange across skinWater-conserving Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste- Fish  ammonia- Mammals and Sharks  urea- Many birds & reptiles  uric acid (costs the most energy, but conserves the most water)Breathe by Expanding Rib Cage- Efficient negative pressure breathing- Fish and amphibians have to gulp air- Improved dual circulation- Separate (reptiles) or completely divided (birds and mammals) ventriclesControl of Body Temperature- Ectothermic – use environment to warm body- Behavioral thermoregulation (basking)- Low metabolic rates generate little heat- All non-bird reptiles- Endothermic – high metabolic rate generates heat and warms body- Physiological thermoregulation- Birds and mammals- Requires insulation (fat, fur, or feathers)Reptiles - Turtles (basal)- Archosaurs: crocs, dinos, and birds- Lepidosaurs: tuataras, lizards, and snakesNon-bird Reptiles- Scaly skin without fur or feathers- Sprawling stance, low profile- Low metabolic rate; ectothermic- Leathery, less calcified egg shells- Uric acid metabolic waste excreted through cloaca (also for