Psych 110Final exam Study GuideChapter 1: Scientific ThinkingTerms to know: naïve realism, confirmation bias, hindsight bias:Naive realism- the belief that we see the world precisely as it is “seeing is believing”Confirmation bias- seeking out evidence that supports our beliefs- deny evidence that contradicts themHindsight bias- “I knew it all along” Overestimating how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomesApophenia vs. Pareidolia:Apophenia-perceiving meaningful connections among unrelated phenomenaPareidolia-seeing meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuliTheory vs. Hypothesis:Scientific theory- an explanation for a large number of findings in the natural and psychological world.Hypothesis- testable predictionScientific thinking principles:1. ruling out rival hypotheses-more than one cause for something2. correlation is not causation3. falsifiability- possibility that it could be shown false by an observation or experiment4. replicability- can it be replicated?5. extraordinary claims- extraordinary evidence6. Occum’s razor- the simplest answer is conclusion Chapter 2: Research MethodsExperiments: IV vs. DV; control group vs. experimental group:Independent Variable- Variable that the experimenter manipulatesDependent Variable- Variable that the experimenter measuresControl Group- Does not receive manipulation of the IVExperimental Group- Receives the manipulation of the IVDifference between external and internal validity:External- the extent to which we can generalize our findings to real-world situations (naturalistic observations)Internal-the extent to which we can draw cause and effect inferences (experimental designs)Basics of correlation (positive vs. negative):Positive- both variables move in the same direction (can be a downward slope)Negative- variables move in different directionsBasic vs. applied research:Basic- examines how the mind worksApplied- examines how we can use basic research to solve real-world problemsChapter 3: BiologyDifference between Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasia:Broca-Broken words (prefrontal cortex)Wernicke’s Aphasia-word salad (temporal lobe)Neurotransmitters:Dopamine-pleasureSerotonine- mood/sleepGABA-inhibitoryglutamate-excitatorynorepinephrine-brain arousalDivision of the nervous system (sympathetic, parasympathetic, autonomic, somatic):Somatic- carries messages from CNS to muscles, controls movementAutonomic- controls emotions and internal statesSympathetic- fight or flight responses (within autonomic)Parasympathetic- digestion, sleep, no threatChapter 4: Sensation and PerceptionTerms sensation, perception, and transduction:Sensation- detection of physical energy by our sense organsperception- interpretation of raw sensory inputstransduction-Nervous system converts external stimulus into electrical signals within neuronsGestalt principles:1. proximity- items close together tend to look like they go together2. similarity- items that are similar look like they go together3. closure- when only part of the image is present, brain will fill in the rest4. figure-ground- what is figure/what is backgroundChapter 6: LearningBasics of the schedules of reinforcement:Fixed Ratio- Provide reinforcement after a regular number of responsesFixed Interval- Provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once after a specified amount of time has passedVariable Ratio- Response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses (Yield the highest rate of response)Variable Interval- Response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passedClassical conditioning: acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery:acquisition- gradually learn or acquire the conditioned responseextinction- CR decreases or disappears when CS is repeatedly presented without the UCSspontaneous recovery- seemingly extinct CR reappears if we present the CS againUCS, UCR, CS, and CR:Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)-A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning (during conditioning)Ex: foodUnconditioned Response (UCR)-Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (during conditioning)Ex: SalvationConditioned Stimulus (CS)-A neutral stimulus that when paired with an UCS elicits a similar response (after conditioning)Ex: BellConditioned Response (CR)-A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral CS with the UCS (after conditioning)Ex: SalvationNegative/positive reinforcement/punishment:negative- taking something awaypositive- presenting somethingpunishment- trying to decrease behaviorreinforcement- trying to increase behaviorChapter 7: MemoryTerms encoding, storage, and retrieval:encoding- getting info into the memory bankstorage- keeping info in memoryretrieval- reactivation or reconstruction of experiencesDifference between decay and interference:decay- memory fading over time interference- loss of memory from incoming infoDifference between proactive and retroactive interference:Proactive- old information interferes with new informationRetroactive- New information interferes with old informationDifference between elaborative and maintenance rehearsal and chunking:elaborative rehearsal- linking new information with previously known information (ROYGBIV)maintenance rehearsal- repeating in original form (parrot)chunking- putting info into meaningful groups (CIAFBI vs. IBFACI)Primacy vs. recency effect:primacy- tendency to remember things at the beginning of a list recency- tendency to remember things at the end of a listTerms recall, recognition, and relearning:recall- generating previously learned information on your own (short answer)recognition- selecting from an array of choices (multiple choice)relearning-relearn info much more quicklyDistributed vs. massed practice:Massed- seen constantly over a short amount of time(cramming)distributed- studying broken up into several short sessions.(over a period of time)(Much better)Chapter 9: IntelligenceTwo types of general intelligence (Crystallized vs. Fluid):crystallized- knowledge and abilities gained by experiences. (increases in adulthood)fluid- natural ability to solve problems- Uninfluenced by experiences (decreases with age)Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence:1. analytical- book smarts/ logical reasoning/school 2. practical- street smarts real world smarts 3. creative- writing, art, and musicEugenics movement:1. IQ testing became a means of identifying adults who were intellectually inferior 2. forced sterilization 3.